Santayana also wished to argue for the existence of the realm of spirit, although, unlike the realm of matter, he argued, it lacked all power.Santayana was also known for his poetry and for his best-selling novel The Last Puritan (1935). George Santayana - 1928 - Westport, Conn., Greenwood Press. The Realm of Spirit: Book Fourth of Realms of Being. By George Santayana (London, Constable & Co.

1. The Realms Of Being Santayana Pdf Download

Jorge Agustín Nicolás Ruiz de Santayana y Borrás, known in English as George Santayana (/ˌsæntiˈænə, -ˈɑːnə/;^[2] December 16, 1863 – September 26, 1952), was a philosopher, essayist, poet, and novelist. Originally from Spain, Santayana was raised and educated in the United States from the age of eight and identified himself as an American, although he always retained a valid Spanish passport.^[3] He wrote in English and is generally considered an American man of letters. At the age of forty-eight, Santayana left his position at Harvard and returned to Europe permanently, never to return to the United States.

Santayana is popularly known for aphorisms, such as 'Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it',^[4] 'Only the dead have seen the end of war',^[5] and the definition of beauty as 'pleasure objectified'.^[6] Although an atheist, he treasured the Spanish Catholic values, practices, and worldview in which he was raised.^[7] Santayana was a broad-ranging cultural critic spanning many disciplines. He was profoundly influenced by Spinoza's life and thought; and, in many respects, was a devoted Spinozist.^[8]

• 8Bibliography

Early life[edit]

Santayana was born on December 16, 1863, in Madrid and spent his early childhood in Ávila, Spain. His mother Josefina Borrás was the daughter of a Spanish official in the Philippines and he was the only child of her second marriage. Josefina Borrás first husband was George Sturgis, a Boston merchant, with whom she had five children, two of whom died in infancy. She lived in Boston for a few years following her husband's death in 1857, but in 1861 moved with her three surviving children to live in Madrid. There she encountered Agustín Ruiz de Santayana, an old friend from her years in the Philippines. They married in 1862. A colonialcivil servant, Ruiz de Santayana was also a painter and minor intellectual. The family lived in Madrid and Ávila.

In 1869, Josefina Borrás de Santayana returned to Boston with her three Sturgis children, because she had promised her first husband to raise the children in the United States. She left the six-year-old Jorge with his father in Spain. Jorge and his father followed her to Boston in 1872. However, his father, finding neither Boston nor his wife's attitude to his liking, soon returned alone to Ávila, and remained there the rest of his life. Jorge did not see him again until he entered Harvard College and began to take his summer vacations in Spain. Sometime during this period, Jorge's first name was anglicized as George, the English equivalent.

Education[edit]

Santayana attended Boston Latin School and Harvard College, where he studied under the philosophers William James and Josiah Royce and was involved in eleven clubs as an alternative to athletics. He was founder and president of the Philosophical Club, a member of the literary society known as the O.K., an editor and cartoonist for The Harvard Lampoon, and co-founder of the literary journal The Harvard Monthly.^[9] In December, 1885, he played the role of Lady Elfrida in the Hasty Pudding theatrical Robin Hood, followed by the production Papillonetta in the spring of his senior year.^[10]

After graduating Phi Beta Kappa from Harvard^[11] in 1886, Santayana studied for two years in Berlin.^[12] He then returned to Harvard to write his dissertation on Hermann Lotze and teach philosophy, becoming part of the Golden Age of the Harvard philosophy department. Some of his Harvard students became famous in their own right, including T. S. Eliot, Robert Frost, Gertrude Stein, Horace Kallen, Walter Lippmann, and W. E. B. Du Bois. Wallace Stevens was not among his students but became a friend.^[13] From 1896 to 1897, Santayana studied at King's College, Cambridge.^[14]

Later life[edit]

Santayana never married. His romantic life, if any, is not well understood. Some evidence, including a comment Santayana made late in life comparing himself to A. E. Housman, and his friendships with people who were openly homosexual and bisexual, has led scholars to speculate that Santayana was perhaps homosexual or bisexual himself, but it remains unclear whether he had any actual heterosexual or homosexual relationships.^[15]

In 1912, Santayana resigned his position at Harvard to spend the rest of his life in Europe. He had saved money and been aided by a legacy from his mother. After some years in Ávila, Paris and Oxford, after 1920, he began to winter in Rome, eventually living there year-round until his death. During his forty years in Europe, he wrote nineteen books and declined several prestigious academic positions. Many of his visitors and correspondents were Americans, including his assistant and eventual literary executor, Daniel Cory. In later life, Santayana was financially comfortable, in part because his 1935 novel, The Last Puritan, had become an unexpected best-seller. In turn, he financially assisted a number of writers, including Bertrand Russell, with whom he was in fundamental disagreement, philosophically and politically.

Santayana's one novel, The Last Puritan, is a bildungsroman, centering on the personal growth of its protagonist, Oliver Alden. His Persons and Places is an autobiography. These works also contain many of his sharper opinions and bons mots. He wrote books and essays on a wide range of subjects, including philosophy of a less technical sort, literary criticism, the history of ideas, politics, human nature, morals, the influence of religion on culture and social psychology, all with considerable wit and humor.

While his writings on technical philosophy can be difficult, his other writings are far more accessible and pithy. He wrote poems and a few plays, and left an ample correspondence, much of it published only since 2000. Like Alexis de Tocqueville, Santayana observed American culture and character from a foreigner's point of view. Like William James, his friend and mentor, he wrote philosophy in a literary way. Ezra Pound includes Santayana among his many cultural references inThe Cantos, notably in 'Canto LXXXI' and 'Canto XCV'. Santayana is usually considered an American writer, although he declined to become an American citizen, resided in Fascist Italy for decades, and said that he was most comfortable, intellectually and aesthetically, at Oxford University. Following 1935 and the writing of his only novel The Last Puritan, he continued to winter in Rome, eventually living there year-round until his death in 1952.

Philosophical work and publications[edit]

Santayana's main philosophical work consists of The Sense of Beauty (1896), his first book-length monograph and perhaps the first major work on aesthetics written in the United States; The Life of Reason five volumes, 1905–6, the high point of his Harvard career; Skepticism and Animal Faith (1923); and The Realms of Being (4 vols., 1927–40). Although Santayana was not a pragmatist in the mold of William James, Charles Sanders Peirce, Josiah Royce, or John Dewey, The Life of Reason arguably is the first extended treatment of pragmatism written.

Like many of the classical pragmatists, and because he was well-versed in evolutionary theory, Santayana was committed to metaphysical naturalism. He believed that human cognition, cultural practices, and social institutions have evolved so as to harmonize with the conditions present in their environment. Their value may then be adjudged by the extent to which they facilitate human happiness. The alternate title to The Life of Reason, 'the Phases of Human Progress,' is indicative of this metaphysical stance.

Santayana was an early adherent of epiphenomenalism, but also admired the classical materialism of Democritus and Lucretius. (Of the three authors on whom he wrote in Three Philosophical Poets, Santayana speaks most favorably of Lucretius). He held Spinoza's writings in high regard, calling him his 'master and model.'^[16]

Although an atheist,^[17][18] he held a fairly benign view of religion. Santayana's views on religion are outlined in his books Reason in Religion, The Idea of Christ in the Gospels, and Interpretations of Poetry and Religion. Santayana described himself as an 'aestheticCatholic.' He spent the last decade of his life at the Convent of the Blue Nuns of the Little Company of Mary on the Celian Hill at 6 Via Santo Stefano Rotondo in Rome, where he was cared for by the Irish sisters.

He held racial superiority and eugenic views. He believed superior races should be discouraged from 'intermarriage with inferior stock'.^[19]

Legacy[edit]

Santayana is remembered in large part for his aphorisms, many of which have been so frequently used as to have become clichéd. His philosophy has not fared quite as well. He is regarded by most as an excellent prose stylist, and Professor John Lachs (who is sympathetic with much of Santayana's philosophy) writes, in On Santayana, that his eloquence may ironically be the very cause of this neglect.

Santayana influenced those around him, including Bertrand Russell, whom Santayana single-handedly steered away from the ethics of G. E. Moore.^[20] He also influenced many prominent people such as Harvard students T. S. Eliot, Robert Frost, Gertrude Stein, Horace Kallen, Walter Lippmann, W. E. B. Du Bois, Conrad Aiken, Van Wyck Brooks, and Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter, as well as Max Eastman and the poet Wallace Stevens. Stevens was especially influenced by Santayana's aesthetics and became a friend even though Stevens did not take courses taught by Santayana.^[21][22][23]

Santayana is quoted by the Canadian-American sociologist Erving Goffman as a central influence in the thesis of his famous book The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959). Religious historian Jerome A. Stone credits Santayana with contributing to the early thinking in the development of religious naturalism.^[24] English mathematician and philosopher Alfred North Whitehead quotes Santayana extensively in his magnum opusProcess and Reality.^[25]

Chuck Jones used Santayana's description of fanaticism as 'redoubling your effort after you've forgotten your aim' to describe his cartoons starring Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner.^[26]

In popular culture[edit]

Santayana is referenced in the lyrics to singer-songwriter Billy Joel's 1989 music single, 'We Didn't Start the Fire'.^[27]

The quote, 'Only the dead have seen the end of war,' is frequently attributed or misattributed to Plato; an early example of this misattribution (if indeed, it is misattributed) is found in General Douglas MacArthur's Farewell Speech given to the Corps of Cadets at West Point in 1962.^[28][29]

Awards[edit]

• Royal Society of Literature Benson Medal, 1925.^[30]
• Columbia University Butler Gold Medal, 1945.^[31]
• Honorary degree from the University of Wisconsin, 1911.^[32]

Bibliography[edit]

• 1894. Sonnets And Other Verses.
• 1896. The Sense of Beauty: Being the Outline of Aesthetic Theory.
• 1899. Lucifer: A Theological Tragedy.
• 1900. Interpretations of Poetry and Religion.
• 1901. A Hermit of Carmel And Other Poems.
• 1905–1906. The Life of Reason: or the Phases of Human Progress, 5 vols.
• 1910. Three Philosophical Poets: Lucretius, Dante, and Goethe.
• 1913. Winds of Doctrine: Studies in Contemporary Opinion.
• 1915. Egotism in German Philosophy.
• 1920. Character and Opinion in the United States: With Reminiscences of William James and Josiah Royce and Academic Life in America.
• 1920. Little Essays, Drawn From the Writings of George Santayana. by Logan Pearsall Smith, With the Collaboration of the Author.
• 1922. Soliloquies in England and Later Soliloquies.
• 1922. Poems.
• 1923. Scepticism and Animal Faith: Introduction to a System of Philosophy.
• 1926. Dialogues in Limbo
• 1927. Platonism and the Spiritual Life.
• 1927–40. The Realms of Being, 4 vols.
• 1931. The Genteel Tradition at Bay.
• 1933. Some Turns of Thought in Modern Philosophy: Five Essays
• 1935. The Last Puritan: A Memoir in the Form of a Novel.
• 1936. Obiter Scripta: Lectures, Essays and Reviews. Justus Buchler and Benjamin Schwartz, eds.
• 1944. Persons and Places.
• 1945. The Middle Span.
• 1946. The Idea of Christ in the Gospels; or, God in Man: A Critical Essay.
• 1948. Dialogues in Limbo, With Three New Dialogues.
• 1951. Dominations and Powers: Reflections on Liberty, Society, and Government.
• 1953. My Host The World

Posthumous edited/selected works[edit]

• 1955. The Letters of George Santayana. Daniel Cory, ed. Charles Scribner's Sons. New York. (296 letters)
• 1956. Essays in Literary Criticism of George Santayana. Irving Singer, ed.
• 1957. The Idler and His Works, and Other Essays. Daniel Cory, ed.
• 1967. The Genteel Tradition: Nine Essays by George Santayana. Douglas L. Wilson, ed.
• 1967. George Santayana's America: Essays on Literature and Culture. James Ballowe, ed.
• 1967. Animal Faith and Spiritual Life: Previously Unpublished and Uncollected Writings by George Santayana With Critical Essays on His Thought. John Lachs, ed.
• 1968. Santayana on America: Essays, Notes, and Letters on American Life, Literature, and Philosophy. Richard Colton Lyon, ed.
• 1968. Selected Critical Writings of George Santayana, 2 vols. Norman Henfrey, ed.
• 1969. Physical Order and Moral Liberty: Previously Unpublished Essays of George Santayana. John and Shirley Lachs, eds.
• 1979. The Complete Poems of George Santayana: A Critical Edition. Edited, with an introduction, by W. G. Holzberger. Bucknell University Press.
• 1995. The Birth of Reason and Other Essays. Daniel Cory, ed., with an Introduction by Herman J. Saatkamp, Jr. Columbia Univ. Press.
• 2009. The Essential Santayana. Selected Writings Edited by the Santayana Edition, Compiled and with an introduction by Martin A. Coleman. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
• 2009. The Genteel Tradition in American Philosophy and Character and Opinion in the United States (Rethinking the Western Tradition), Edited and with an introduction by James Seaton and contributions by Wilfred M. McClay, John Lachs, Roger Kimball and James Seaton Yale University Press.

The Works of George Santayana[edit]

Unmodernized, critical editions of George Santayana's published and unpublished writing. The Works is edited by the Santayana Edition and published by The MIT Press.

• 1986. Persons and Places. Santayana's autobiography, incorporating Persons and Places, 1944; The Middle Span, 1945; and My Host the World, 1953.
• 1988 (1896). The Sense of Beauty: Being the Outline of Aesthetic Theory.
• 1990 (1900). Interpretations of Poetry and Religion.
• 1994 (1935). The Last Puritan: A Memoir in the Form of a Novel.
• The Letters of George Santayana. Containing over 3,000 of his letters, many discovered posthumously, to more than 350 recipients.
  • 2001. Book One, 1868–1909.
  • 2001. Book Two, 1910–1920.
  • 2002. Book Three, 1921–1927.
  • 2003. Book Four, 1928–1932.
  • 2003. Book Five, 1933–1936.
  • 2004. Book Six, 1937–1940.
  • 2006. Book Seven, 1941–1947.
  • 2008. Book Eight, 1948–1952.
• 2011. George Santayana's Marginalia: A Critical Selection, Books 1 and 2. Compiled by John O. McCormick and edited by Kristine W. Frost.
• The Life of Reason in five books.
  • 2011 (1905). Reason in Common Sense.
  • 2013 (1905). Reason in Society.
  • 2014 (1905). Reason in Religion.
• 2019 (1910). Three Philosophical Poets: Lucretius, Dante, and Goethe, Critical Edition, Edited by Kellie Dawson and David E. Spiech, with an introduction by James Seaton

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^John R. Shook (ed.), The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers, Continuum, 2005, p. 1499.
2. ^'the definition of Santayana'.
3. ^George Santayana, 'Apologia Pro Mente Sua,' in P. A. Schilpp, The Philosophy of George Santayana, (1940), 603.
4. ^George Santayana (1905) Reason in Common Sense, p. 284, volume 1 of The Life of Reason
5. ^George Santayana (1922) Soliloquies in England and Later Soliloquies, number 25
6. ^'Beauty as Intrinsic Pleasure by George Santayana'.
7. ^Lovely, Edward W. (Sep 28, 2012). George Santayana's Philosophy of Religion: His Roman Catholic Influences and Phenomenology. Lexington Books. pp. 1, 204–206.
8. ^See his letters and works (such as Persons and Places; Soliloquies in England and Later Soliloquies)
9. ^Parri, Alice Two Harvard Friends: Charles Loeser and George Santayana[1]
10. ^Garrison, Lloyd McKim, An Illustrated History of the Hasty Pudding Club Theatricals, Cambridge, Hasty Pudding Club, 1897.
11. ^Who Belongs To Phi Beta KappaArchived 2012-01-03 at the Wayback Machine, ’Phi Beta Kappa website’’, accessed Oct 4, 2009
12. ^'SANTAYANA, George'. Who's Who. Vol. 59. 1907. p. 1555.
13. ^Lensing, George S. (1986). Wallace Stevens: A Poet's Growth. LSU Press. 313 pp. ISBN0807112976. p.12-13.
14. ^'Santayana, George (SNTN896G)'. A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
15. ^Saatkamp, Herman; Coleman, Martin (1 January 2014). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
16. ^The Letters of George Santayana: Book Eight, 1948–1952 By George Santayana p 8:39
17. ^'My atheism, like that of Spinoza, is true piety towards the universe, and denies only gods fashioned by men in their own image, to be servants of their human interests.' George Santayana, 'On My Friendly Critics,' in Soliloquies in England and Later Soliloquies, 1922 (from Rawson's Dictionary of American Quotations via credoreference.com). Accessed August 1, 2008.
18. ^'Santayana playfully called himself 'a Catholic atheist,' but in spite of the fact that he deliberately immersed himself in the stream of Catholic religious life, he never took the sacraments. He neither literally regarded himself as a Catholic nor did Catholics regard him as a Catholic.' Empiricism, Theoretical Constructs, and God, by Kai Nielsen, The Journal of Religion, Vol. 54, No. 3 (Jul., 1974), pp. 199-217 (p. 205), published by The University of Chicago Press.
19. ^Santayana, George (2015-11-26). 'The Life of Reason: Human Understanding'.
20. ^Michael K. Potter. Bertrand Russell’s Ethics. London and New York: Continuum, 2006. Pp. xiii, 185. ISBN0826488102, p.4
21. ^Lensing, George S. (1986). Wallace Stevens: A Poet's Growth. LSU Press. 313 pp. ISBN0807112976. p.12-23.
22. ^'Archived copy'. Archived from the original on 2013-07-25. Retrieved 2014-01-07.Cite uses deprecated parameter deadurl= (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
23. ^Saatkamp, Herman, 'George Santayana,' The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2010/entries/santayana/>
24. ^Religious Naturalism Today, pp. 21–37
25. ^Whitehead, A.N. (1929). Process and Reality. An Essay in Cosmology. Gifford Lectures Delivered in the University of Edinburgh During the Session 1927–1928, Macmillan, New York, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK.
26. ^See the sixth paragraph, That's Not All, Folks! 'Of course you know this means war.' Who said it?, by Terry Teachout, The Wall Street Journal, November 25, 2003, (Archived at WebCite).
27. ^We Didn't Start the Fire. BillyJoel.com. Retrieved 2016-09-25.
28. ^SUZANNE, Bernard F. 'Plato FAQ: Did plato write :'Only the dead have seen the end of war'?'. plato-dialogues.org. Retrieved 2018-04-29.
29. ^'Who Really Said That?'. The Chronicle of Higher Education. 2013-09-16. Retrieved 2018-04-29.
30. ^'Archived copy'. Archived from the original on 2013-09-18. Retrieved 2014-01-07.Cite uses deprecated parameter deadurl= (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
31. ^George Santayana; William G. Holzberger (Editor). (2006). The Letters of George Santayana, Book Seven, 1941-1947. (MIT Press (MA), Hardcover, 9780262195560, 569pp.) (p. 143).
32. ^'University Lectures - Secretary of the Faculty'. Archived from the original on 2013-09-28.Cite uses deprecated parameter deadurl= (help)

Further reading[edit]

• W. Arnett, 1955. Santayana and the Sense of Beauty, Bloomington, Indiana University Press.
• H. T. Kirby-Smith, 1997. A Philosophical Novelist: George Santayana and the Last Puritan. Southern Illinois University Press.
• Jeffers, Thomas L., 2005. Apprenticeships: The Bildungsroman from Goethe to Santayana. New York: Palgrave: 159–84.
• Lamont, Corliss (ed., with the assistance of Mary Redmer), 1959. Dialogue on George Santayana. New York: Horizon Press.
• McCormick, John, 1987. George Santayana: A Biography. Alfred A. Knopf. The biography.
• Singer, Irving, 2000. George Santayana, Literary Philosopher. Yale University Press.
• Miguel Alfonso, Ricardo (ed.), 2010, La estética de George Santayana, Madrid: Verbum.
• Patella, Giuseppe, Belleza, arte y vida. La estética mediterranea de George Santayana, Valencia, PUV, 2010, pp. 212. ISBN978-84-370-7734-5.
• Pérez Firmat, Gustavo. Tongue Ties: Logo-Eroticism in Anglo-Hispanic Literature. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
• Moreno, Daniel. Santayana the Philosopher: Philosophy as a Form of Life. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 2015. Translated by Charles Padron.

External links[edit]

• Works by George Santayana at Project Gutenberg
• Works by George Santayana at Faded Page (Canada)
• Works by or about George Santayana at Internet Archive
• Saatkamp, Herman. 'George Santayana'. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Includes a complete bibliography of the primary literature, and a fair selection of the secondary literature
• The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: George Santayana by Matthew C. Flamm
• Works by George Santayana at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
• Overheard in Seville: Bulletin of the Santayana Society
• On George Santayana: Spanish-English Blog about Santayana
• George Santayana at Curlie
• George Santayana at Find a Grave
• George Santayana, Many Nations in One Empire (1934)
• George Santayana, 88, Dies in RomeHarvard Crimson death notice of 29 September 1952

Philosopher, poet, literary and cultural critic, George Santayana isa principal figure in Classical American Philosophy. His naturalism andemphasis on creative imagination were harbingers of importantintellectual turns on both sides of the Atlantic. He was a naturalistbefore naturalism grew popular; he appreciated multiple perfectionsbefore multiculturalism became an issue; he thought of philosophy asliterature before it became a theme in American and European scholarlycircles; and he managed to naturalize Platonism, update Aristotle,fight off idealisms, and provide a striking and sensitive account ofthe spiritual life without being a religious believer. His Hispanicheritage, shaded by his sense of being an outsider in America, capturesmany qualities of American life missed by insiders, and presents viewsequal to Tocqueville in quality and importance. Beyond philosophy, onlyEmerson may match his literary production. As a public figure, heappeared on the front cover of Time (3 February 1936), and hisautobiography (Persons and Places, 1944) and only novel(The Last Puritan, 1936) were the best-selling books in theUnited States as Book-of-the-Month Club selections. The novel wasnominated for a Pulitzer Prize, and Edmund Wilson ranked Personsand Places among the few first-rate autobiographies, comparing itfavorably to Yeats's memoirs, The Education of Henry Adams,and Proust's Remembrance of Things Past. Remarkably, Santayanaachieved this stature in American thought without being an Americancitizen. He proudly retained his Spanish citizenship throughout hislife. Yet, as he readily admitted, it is as an American that hisphilosophical and literary corpuses are to be judged. Usingcontemporary classifications, Santayana is the first and foremostHispanic-American philosopher

• Bibliography

1. Biography

Santayana's heritage is rooted in the Spanish diplomatic societywith its stress on high education and familiarity with the worldcommunity. He was born in Madrid, Spain, on 16 December 1863. Hisfather, Agustín Santayana, was born in 1812. The father studiedlaw and practiced for a short time before entering the colonial servicefor posting to the Philippines. While studying law, Agustínserved an apprenticeship to a professional painter of the school ofGoya and a number of his paintings remain in the private possession ofthe family. He translated four Senecan tragedies into Spanish, wrote anunpublished book about the island of Mindanao, had an extensivelibrary, and made three trips around the world. In 1845, he became thegovernor of Batang, a small island in the Philippines. He took over thegovernorship from the recently deceased José Borrás yBofarull, who was the father of Josefina Borrás, later to becomeAgustín's wife in 1861 and the mother of George Santayana. Hismother, Josefina Sturgis (formerly Josefina Borrás y Carbonell),was born in Scotland and was the daughter of a Spanish diplomat.Previously she married George Sturgis (d. 1857), a Boston merchant,whose early death left her alone with children in Manila. There werefive children from this first marriage, three of whom survived infancy.She promised her first husband to raise the children in Boston whereshe moved her family. During a holiday in Spain, Josefina metAgustín again, and they were married in 1861. He was fifty yearsof age and she was probably thirty-five. In 1863, Santayana waschristened Jorge Agustín Nicolás Ruiz de Santayana yBorrás. His half sister, Susan, insisted that he be called“George,” after her Boston father. Santayana, in turn,always referred to his sister in the Spanish, “Susana.”

1863–1886. Santayana lived eight years in Spain,forty years in Boston, and forty years in Europe. In his autobiography,Persons and Places, Santayana divides his life into threephases. The background (1863–1886) encompasses his childhood in Spainthrough his undergraduate years at Harvard. The second period(1886–1912) is that of the Harvard graduate student and professor witha trans-Atlantic penchant for traveling to Europe. The third period(1912–1952) is the retired professor writing and traveling in Europeand eventually establishing Rome as his home.

The family moved from Madrid to Ávila where Santayana spenthis boyhood. In 1869, Santayana's mother left Spain in order to raisethe Sturgis children in Boston, keeping her pledge to her firsthusband. In 1872, his father realized the opportunities for his sonwere better in Boston, and he moved there with his son. Finding Bostoninhospitable, puritanical, and cold, the father returned alone toÁvila within a few months. The separation between father andmother was permanent. In 1888 Agustín wrote to Josefina:“When we were married I felt as if it were written that I shouldbe reunited with you, yielding to the force of destiny. Strangemarriage, this of ours! So you say, and so it is in fact. I love youvery much, and you too have cared for me, yet we do not livetogether” (Persons and Places, 9).

Until his father's death (1893), Santayana regularly correspondedwith his father and he visited him after Santayana's first year atHarvard College. In Boston, Santayana's family spoke only Spanish intheir home. Santayana first attended Mrs. Welchman's Kindergarten tolearn English from the younger children, then he was a student at theBoston Latin School, and he completed his B.A. and Ph.D. at HarvardCollege (1882–1889), including eighteen months of study in Germany on aWalker Fellowship. His undergraduate years at Harvard reveal anenergetic student with an active social life. He was a member of elevenorganizations including The Lampoon (largely as a cartoonist),the Harvard Monthly (a founding member), the PhilosophicalClub (President), and the Hasty Pudding.

Some scholars conclude that Santayana was an active homosexual basedon allusions in Santayana's early poetry (McCormick, 49–52) andSantayana's association with known homosexual and bisexual friends.Santayana provides no clear indication of his sexual preferences, andhe never married. Attraction to both women and men seems apparent inhis undergraduate and graduate correspondence. The one documentedcomment about his homosexuality occurs when he was sixty-five. After adiscussion of A. E. Housman's poetry and homosexuality, Santayanaremarked, “I think I must have been that way in my Harvard days —although I was unconscious of it at the time” (Cory, Santayana: TheLater Years, 40). Because of Santayana's well-known frankness,many scholars consider Santayana a latent homosexual based on thisevidence.

1886–1912. Santayana received his Ph.D. fromHarvard in 1889 and became a faculty member at Harvard University(1889–1912) and eventually a central figure in the era now calledClassical American Philosophy. He was a highly respected and popularteacher, and his students included poets (Conrad Aiken, T. S. Eliot,Robert Frost, Wallace Stevens), journalists and writers (WalterLippmann, Max Eastman, Van Wyck Brooks), professors (Samuel EliotMorison, Harry Austryn Wolfson), a Supreme Court Justice (FelixFrankfurter), many diplomats (including his friend Bronson Cutting),and a university president (James B. Conant). He retired from Harvardin 1912 at the age of forty-eight and lived the remainder of his lifein England and Europe, never returning to the U.S. and rejectingacademic posts offered at a number of universities, including Harvard,Columbia, and Cambridge.

Santayana cherished academic life for its freedom to pursueintellectual interests and curiosity, but he found that many aspectsof being a professor infringed on that freedom. Faculty meetings anduniversity committees seemed primarily to be partisan heat over falseissues, so he rarely attended them. The general corporate andbusinesslike adaptation of universities was increasingly lessconducive to intellectual development and growth. He expressed concernabout the evolving Harvard goal of producing muscular intellectuals tolead America as statesmen in business and government. Were not delightand celebration also a central aspect of education? He wrote to afriend in 1892, expressing the hope that his academic life would be“resolutely unconventional” and noted that he could onlybe a professor per accidens, saying that “I wouldrather beg than be one essentially” (GS to H. W. Abbot,Stoughton Hall, Harvard, 15 February 1892. Columbia).

In 1893, Santayana experienced a metanoia, a change ofheart. Gradually he altered his style of life from that of an activestudent turned professor to one focused on the imaginative celebrationof life. In doing so, he began planning for his early retirement,finding university life increasingly less conducive to intellectualpursuits and delight in living. Three events preceded hismetanoia: the unexpected death of a young student, witnessinghis father's death, and the marriage of his sister Susana. Santayana'sreflections on these events led to the ancient wisdom that acceptanceof the tragic leads to a lyrical release. “Cultivate imagination,love it, give it endless forms, but do not let it deceive you. Enjoythe world, travel over it, and learn its ways, but do not let it holdyou … . To possess things and persons in idea is the only puregood to be got out of them; to possess them physically or legally is aburden and a snare (Persons and Places, 427–28).”

Increasingly, naturalism and the lyrical cry of human imaginationbecame the focal points of Santayana's life and thought. Pragmatism, asdeveloped by Peirce and James, was an undercurrent in his naturalism,particularly as an approach to how we ascertain knowledge, but thereare aspects of his naturalism more aligned with European and Greekthought that presage developments in the late twentieth century. Hisnaturalism had its historical roots primarily in Aristotle and Spinozaand its contemporary background in James's pragmatism and Royce'sidealism. His focus on and celebration of creative imagination in allhuman endeavors (particularly in art, philosophy, religion, literature,and science) is one of Santayana's major contributions to Americanthought. This focus, along with his Spanish heritage, Catholicupbringing, and European suspicion of American industry, set him apartin the Harvard Yard.

Santayana's strong interest in literature and aesthetics is evidentthroughout this early period, but by 1904, his attention turned almostfully to philosophical pursuits. During this period his publicationsinclude: Lotze's System of Philosophy (dissertation),Sonnets and Other Verses (1894), The Sense of Beauty(1896), Lucifer: A Theological Tragedy (1899),Interpretations of Poetry and Religion (1900), A Hermit ofCarmel, and Other Poems (1901), The Life of Reason (fivebooks, 1905–1906), Three Philosophical Poets: Lucretius, Dante, andGoethe (1910).

In May 1911, Santayana formally announced his long-plannedretirement from Harvard. President Lowell asked him to reconsider. Bynow Santayana was a highly recognized philosopher, cultural critic,poet, and teacher, and his desire to be free from academic confinementwas also well known. Lowell indicated he was open to any arrangementthat provided Santayana the time he desired for writing and for travelin Europe. Initially Santayana agreed to alternate years in Europe andthe U.S., but in 1912, his resolve to retire overtook his sense ofobligation to Harvard. The year before his retirement, he had presentedat least six lectures at a variety of universities including Berkeley,Wisconsin, Columbia, and Williams. His books were selling well and hispublishers were asking for more. Two major universities were courtinghim. At forty-eight, he left Harvard to become a full-time writer andto escape the academic professionalism that nurtured a universityovergrown with “thistles of trivial and narrow scholarship.”

1912–1952. As Santayana sailed for Europe, hismother died, apparently of Alzheimer's disease. Always attentive to hisfamily, Santayana visited her weekly, then daily, during his last yearsat Harvard. Knowing his mother's death was imminent, he arranged forJosephine, his half sister, to live in Spain with Susana, whopreviously had married a well-to-do Ávilan. An inheritance of$10,000 from his mother, coupled with his steady income frompublications and his early planning, made retirement easier. Hearranged for his half brother, Robert, to manage his finances with theagreement that upon Santayana's death, Robert or his heirs wouldreceive the bulk of Santayana's estate. Hence, in January 1912, at ageforty-eight, Santayana was free from the constraints of universityregimen and expectations and, more importantly, free to write, totravel, and to choose his residence and country.

Santayana's book publications after leaving Harvard is remarkable:Winds of Doctrine (1913), Egotism in GermanPhilosophy (1915), Character and Opinion in the UnitedStates (1920), Soliloquies in England and LaterSoliloquies (1922), Scepticism and Animal Faith (1923),Dialogues in Limbo (1926), Platonism and the SpiritualLife (1927), the four books of The Realms of Being (1927,1930, 1938, 1940), The Genteel Tradition at Bay (1931),Some Turns of Thought in Modern Philosophy (1933), TheLast Puritan (1935), Persons and Places (1944), TheMiddle Span (1945), The Idea of Christ in the Gospels(1946), Dominations and Powers (1951), and My Host theWorld (1953, posthumous).

Harvard attempted to bring him back to the United States, offeringhim several professorships beginning in 1917. As late as 1929, he wasoffered the Norton Chair in Poetry, one of Harvard's most respectedchairs. In 1931, he received an invitation from Brown University, andHarvard later asked him to accept the William James Lecturer inPhilosophy, a newly established honorary post. But Santayana neverreturned to Harvard or to America. Believing that the academic life wasnot a place for him to cultivate intellectual achievement or scholarlywork, Santayana also refused academic appointments both at OxfordUniversity and Cambridge University.

At first, Santayana planned to reside in Europe, and after numerousexploratory trips to several cities, he decided on Paris. However,while he was in England, World War I broke out and he was unable toreturn to the mainland. First, he lived in London and then primarily atOxford and Cambridge. After the war, he was more of a travelingscholar, and his principal locales included Paris, Madrid,Ávila, the Riviera, Florence, and Rome. By the late 1920s, hesettled principally in Rome, and during the summers, he often retreatedto Cortina d'Ampezzo in Northern Italy to write and to escape the heat.Because of his success as a writer, he assisted friends and scholarswhen they found themselves in need of financial support. For example,when Bertrand Russell was unable to find a teaching post in the U.S. orEngland because of his views regarding pacifism and marriage, Santayanadisplayed a characteristic generosity in his plan to make an anonymousgift to Bertrand Russell of the $25,000 royalty earnings from TheLast Puritan, at the rate of $5,000 per year, in the letter toGeorge Sturgis (15 July 1937). Despite the fact that he and Russelldisagreed radically both politically and philosophically, his memory oftheir earlier friendship and his regard for Russell's genius moved himto compassion for Russell's financial plight.

The rise of Mussolini in the 1930s initially seemed positive toSantayana. He viewed the Italian civil society as chaotic and thoughtMussolini might bring order where needed. But Santayana soon noted therise of a tyrant. Trying to leave Italy by train for Switzerland, hewas not permitted to cross the border because he did not have theproper papers. With most of his funds coming from the United States andEngland, his case was complicated by his Spanish citizenship and hisage. He returned to Rome, and on 14 October 1941 he entered the Clinicadella Piccola Compagna di Maria, a hospital-clinic run by a Catholicorder of nuns, where he lived until his death eleven years later. Thisarrangement was not unusual. The hospital periodically receiveddistinguished guests and cared for them in an assisted-livingenvironment. Santayana died of cancer on 26 September 1952.

Santayana asked that he be buried in unconsecrated ground, affirminghis naturalism to the end. However, the only such cemetery ground inRome was reserved for criminals. The Spanish Consulate at Rome wouldnot permit Santayana to be buried in such a place and provided the“Panteon de la Obra Pia espanola” in the Campo Veranocemetery as a suitable burial ground, turning it into a memorial forthe lifelong Spanish citizen. At the graveside, Daniel Cory read linesfrom Santayana's “The Poet's Testament,” a poem affirming hisnaturalistic outlook:

I give back to the earth what the earth gave,
All to the furrow, nothing to the grave.
The candle's out, the spirit's vigil spent;
Sight may not follow where the vision went.

In the United States, Wallace Stevens commemorated his teacher in“To an Old Philosopher in Rome.”

Total grandeur of a total edifice,
Chosen by an inquisitor of structures
For himself. He stops upon this threshold,
As if the design of all his words takes form
And frame from thinking and is realized.

2. Philosophy, Literature, and Culture

Throughout his life, Santayana's literary achievements are evident.As an eight-year-old Spaniard, he wrote Un matrimonio (AMarried Couple), describing the trip of a newly married couple thatmeets the Queen of Spain. Later in Boston, he wrote a poetic parody ofThe Aeneid; “A Short History of the Class of‘82”; and “Lines on Leaving the BedfordSt. Schoolhouse.” His first book, Sonnets and OtherVerses (1894), is a book of poems, not philosophy. And, until theturn of the century, much of his intellectual life was directed to thewriting of verse and drama. He was a principal figure in makingmodernism possible but was not a modernist in poetry orliterature. His naturalism and emphasis on constructive imaginationinfluenced both T. S. Eliot and Wallace Stevens. Eliot's notion of the“objective correlative” is drawn from Santayana, andStevens follows Santayana in his refined naturalism by incorporatingboth Platonism and Christianity without any nostalgia for God ordogma.

Santayana was among the leaders in transforming the Americanliterary canon, dislodging the dominant Longfellow, Lowell, Whittier,Holmes, Bryant canon. Santayana's essay “The Genteel Tradition inAmerican Philosophy” (presented to the Philosophical Union of theUniversity of California in 1911) greatly affected Van Wyck Brooks'sAmerica's Coming-of-Age, a book that set the tone formodernism. Brooks drew on Santayana's essay, adapting Santayana's ideaof two Americas to fit his notion of an America split between highbrowand lowbrow culture.

By the turn of the century, Santayana's interests largely centeredon his philosophical inquiries, and although he never abandonedwriting poetry, he no longer considered it his central work. Even so,some of his most moving poetry came later and was inspired by thetrench warfare and casualties of World War I: “A Premonition:Cambridge, October, 1913”; “The Undergraduate Killed inBattle: Oxford, 1915”; “Sonnet: Oxford, 1916”; and“The Darkest Hour: Oxford, 1917.” Throughout his life,even near death, he recited and translated long fragments of Horace,Racine, Leopardi, and others.

The relationships between literature, art, religion and philosophyare prominent themes throughout Santayana's writings. The Sense ofBeauty (1896) is a primary source for the study of aesthetics.Philip Blair Rice wrote in the foreword to the 1955 Modern Libraryedition: “To say that aesthetic theory in America reachedmaturity with The Sense of Beauty is in no way anoverstatement. Only John Dewey's Art as Experience hascompeted with it in the esteem of philosophical students of aestheticsand has approached its suggestiveness for artists, critics and thepublic which takes a thoughtful interest in the arts.”Santayana's groundbreaking approach to aesthetics is emphasized inArthur Danto's “Introduction” to the 1988 critical edition.Danto writes that Santayana brings “beauty down to earth”by treating it as a subject for science and giving it a central role inhuman conduct, in contrast to the preceding intellectualist traditionof aesthetics. “The exaltation of emotion and the naturalizationof beauty — especially of beauty — imply a revolutionaryimpulse for a book it takes a certain violent act of historicalimagination to recover” (Sense of Beauty, xxviii). Thisnaturalistic approach to aesthetics is expanded in his philosophicalexplication of art found in The Life of Reason: Reason in Art(1905).

In 1900, Santayana's Interpretations of Poetry and Religiondevelops his view that religion and poetry are expressive celebrationsof life. Each in its own right is of great value, but if either ismistaken for science, the art of life is lost along with the beauty ofpoetry and religion. Science provides explanations of naturalphenomena, but poetry and religion are festive celebrations of humanlife born of consciousness generated from the interaction of one'spsyche (the natural structure and heritable traits of one's physicalbody) and the physical environment. As expressions of human values,poetry and religion are identical in origin. Understanding thenaturalistic base for poetry and religion and valuing their expressivecharacter enable one to appreciate them without being hoodwinked:“poetry loses its frivolity and ceases to demoralise, while religionsurrenders its illusions and ceases to deceive” (172). Interestingly,his father expressed similar views in his letters to his son, providingthe genesis of his son's reflections, and this conclusion is expressedas late as the 1946 publication of The Idea of Christ in theGospels where Santayana presents the idea of Christ as poetic andimaginative, contrasted with attempts at historical, factual accountsof the Christ figure. The impact of Santayana's view was significant,and Henry James (after reading Interpretations of Poetry andReligion) wrote that he would “crawl across London” if need be tomeet Santayana.

Three Philosophical Poets (1910) was the first volume ofthe Harvard Studies in Comparative Literature. Santayana employs anaturalistic account of poetry and philosophy, attempting to combinecomparative structures with as few embedded parochial assumptions aspossible while making explicit our material boundness to particularworlds and perspectives. His analyses of Lucretius, Dante, and Goetheare described by one biographer as “a classical work and one of the fewwritten in America to be genuinely comparative in conception andexecution, for its absence of national bias and its intellectual,linguistic, and aesthetic range” (McCormick, 193).

The Realms Of Being Santayana Pdf Download

Initially, Santayana appears optimistic about the youthful America.In his Berkeley lecture, “The Genteel Tradition in AmericanPhilosophy,” he declared “the American Will inhabits thesky-scraper; the American Intellect inhabits the colonialmansion.” (“The Genteel Tradition in AmericanPhilosophy,” Triton Edition, vol. VII. P. 129.) Europeantranscendentalism and Calvinism are the American intellectualtraditions, but they no longer suit the American drive for success inindustry, business, and football. Hence, the youthful willfulness ofthe country has outrun the old wits, but there remains a chance forwisdom and energy to be coupled in a future coherent and richtradition, and he sees the beginnings of such a tradition in James'spragmatism.

Within a decade, he is less optimistic. Character and Opinion inthe United States (1920) is his valediction to America. Itincludes frank, intellectual portraits of his Harvard colleagues and ofAmerican culture. From his residence in Cambridge, he praises theEnglish emphasis on social cooperation and personal integrity andcontrasts them with America where “You must wave, you must cheer, youmust push with the irresistible crowd; otherwise you will feel like atraitor, a soulless outcast, a deserted ship high and dry on the shore… . This national faith and morality are vague in idea, butinexorable in spirit; they are the gospel of work and the belief inprogress. By them, in a country where all men are free, every man findsthat what most matters has been settled beforehand” (211).

Santayana's standing as a literary figure reached its zenith withthe publication of The Last Puritan (1936). The LastPuritan is Santayana's only novel, and it was an internationalsuccess. It was compared positively with Goethe's WilhelmMeister, Pater's Marius, and Mann's The MagicMountain. Its provenance lies in the 1890s when Santayana began aseries of sketches on college life that, broadened through hisexperience and travel, resulted in The Last Puritan.Essentially, it is about the life and early death of an American youth,Oliver Alden, who is sadly restricted by his Puritanism. Santayanadraws a sharp contrast with the European Mario, who delights in allmatters without a narrow moralism. Mario is a carefree, naturallygifted and likeable young man who by American standards appears toofocused on the peripheral aspects of life: travel, opera, love affairs,and architecture. And the American perspective is embodied in thetragic hero, Oliver Alden, who is the last Puritan. He does what isright, based on his duties to his family, school, and friends. Life isa slow, powerful flow of tasks and responsibilities. He is intelligentand knows there is more than obligation, and he senses his guilt at notbeing able to achieve the natural abundant life, but knowing this onlynourishes his Puritanism and causes him to feel guilty about beingguilty. In a charming scene in the novel, Oliver introduces Mario toProfessor Santayana at Harvard. Oliver is a dedicated student andfootball player, thoroughly a first rate American taking mattersseriously and doing his best. After only a short visit with theProfessor, Mario, it is decided by Santayana, does not need to take acourse from the Professor. Mario already has the natural, instinctualapproach of a cultivated person. Oliver, on the other hand, knows hemust work to achieve his goal, which will be only a succession ofgoals, and ends tragically. Santayana's Hispanic and Catholicbackground play a central role in his critique of American life: toobound by past traditions and obligations that are not understood orrooted in one's own culture.

The fear that Santayana's autobiography would be lost or destroyedduring World War II, led Scribner's, the publisher, to conspire withthe U.S. Department of State, the Vatican, and the Spanish governmentto bring the manuscript of the first part (Persons and Places)out of Rome sub rosa, despite the Italian government's refusalto allow any mail to the U.S. The manuscript for the second part(The Middle Span, 1945) also was conveyed surreptitiously toNew York. The third part (My Host the World, 1953) waspublished after Santayana's death. His autobiography provides the basisfor understanding the development of his philosophy

3. Development of Santayana's Philosophy

In his autobiography, Persons and Places, Santayana describesthe development of his thought as a movement from the idealisms ofboyhood to the intellectual materialism of a traveling student, andfinally to the complete, naturalistic outlook of the adultSantayana. He emphasizes the continuity of his life and beliefs,contrasting what may appear to be disparate views with the overallunity of his thought: “The more I change the more I am the sameperson” (Persons and Places, 159).

As a young man of the nineteenth century, he was influenced by theidealism of the age and of his age, but he claims to have always been arealist or naturalist at heart.

But those ideal universes in my head did not produce any firmconvictions or actual duties. They had nothing to do with the wretchedpoverty-stricken real world in which I was condemned to live. That thereal was rotten and only the imaginary at all interesting seemed to meaxiomatic. That was too sweeping; yet allowing for the rashgeneralisations of youth, it is still what I think. My philosophy hasnever changed. (Persons and Places, 167)

Hence he notes, that in spite “of my religious and otherday-dreams, I was at bottom a young realist; I knew I was dreaming,and so was awake. A sure proof of this was that I was never anxiousabout what those dreams would have involved if they had been true. Inever had the least touch of superstition” (Persons andPlaces, 167). Santayana cites poems, “To the Moon”and “To the Host,” written when he was fifteen or sixteen,as revealing this early realism, and he quotes from memory one stanzaof “At the Church Door” where the realistic sentiment isthe same (Persons and Places, 169).

By the time he was a traveling student seeing the world in Germany,England, and Spain his “intellectual materialism” was firmlyestablished with little change in his religious affections.

From the boy dreaming awake in the church of the ImmaculateConception, to the travelling student seeing the world in Germany,England, and Spain there had been no great change in sentiment.

I wasstill “at the church door”. Yet in belief, in theclarification of my philosophy, I had taken an important step. I nolonger wavered between alternative views of the world, to be put on ortaken off like alternative plays at the theatre. I now saw that therewas only one possible play, the actual history of nature and ofmankind, although there might well be ghosts among the characters andsoliloquies among the speeches. Religions, all religions, andidealistic philosophies, all idealistic philosophies, were thesoliloquies and the ghosts. They might be eloquent and profound. LikeHamlet's soliloquy they might be excellent reflective criticisms ofthe play as a whole. Nevertheless they were only parts of it, andtheir value as criticisms lay entirely in their fidelity to the facts,and to the sentiments which those facts aroused in thecritic. (Persons and Places, 169)

The full statement and development of his materialism did not occuruntil later in his life. It was certainly in place by the time ofScepticism and Animal Faith (1923) but not fully so at thetime of The Life of Reason (1905). The influence of theHarvard philosophers, particularly James and Royce is evident inSantayana's thought, but he was hardly a mere follower and oftenadvanced his philosophy more along European and Greek lines rather thanthe American tradition, which he thought was both too derivative andtoo tied to the advancement of business and capitalism.

The move from Harvard marked not only a geographical shift but aphilosophical one as well. Henry Levinson in Santayana, Pragmatism,and the Spiritual Life provides a well-balanced account of thisgradual but distinctive move from the Harvard philosophical mentality.Leaving Harvard also meant that Santayana abandoned the view of aphilosopher as a public, philosophical statesman and of language asbeing representative. This philosophical turn placed makes him aforerunner of many issues in the next two centuries. Removing himself,literally and philosophically, from the American scene, Santayanaincreasingly came to believe that the “brimstone” sensibility ofpragmatism was wrong-headed (Character and Opinion in the UnitedStates, 53). A major aspect of this sensibility was the view thatphilosophers must be engaged fundamentally in social and culturalpolicy formulation, and if they are not, they are not pulling theircivic weight. In this fashion, Santayana believes the pragmatists cameto belie “the genuinely expressive, poetic, meditative, and festivecharacter of their vocation” (Levinson,165). A condition that Jamestook seriously in his “On a Certain Blindness in Human Beings,”suggesting that the world of practical responsibility fosters ablindness to multiplural ways of living that can only be escaped bycatching sight of “the world of impersonal worths as such” — “onlyyour mystic, your dreamer, or your insolent loafer or tramp can affordso sympathetic an occupation” (James, Talks to Teachers onPsychology and to Students on Some of Life's Ideals, 141).Interestingly, America's imperialistic actions toward the Philippinesduring the Spanish-American War sparked James' remarks; this was a warthat had a much deeper ancestral and historical aspect for Santayanaand led to his poem, “Young Sammy's First Wild Oats.” Whether connectedor not, Santayana later came to identify himself as an intellectualvagabond or tramp, not isolated in the specific perspectives of anideology, hosted by the world, and devoted to spiritual disciplinesthat “appear irresponsible to philosophers hoping to commandrepresentative or some otherwise privileged authority at the center ofsociety” (Levinson, 167).

Building on his naturalism, institutional pragmatism, socialrealism, and poetic religion, Santayana on leaving Harvard moves evenfarther from the role of philosophical statesman by removing therepresentative authority of language from the quest for a comprehensivesynthesis, by narrowing the line between literature and philosophy (ashe had earlier done between religion and poetry), and by wrestling morewith the influence of James than of Emerson. Santayana's stay in Oxfordduring the Great War led to his famous counter to Wilson's war to endall wars: “Only the dead have seen the end of war.” (Soliloquies inEngland and Later Soliloquies, 102)

Santayana's message is clear: The epistemological project thatRussell's Problems epitomizes is diseased. The renewed questto establish unmediated Knowledge of Reality simply leads to“intellectual cramp” (Soliloquies, 216). Philosophy has itselfbecome spiritually disordered by blinding its practitionersfrom their traditional and proper task, which is to celebrate the goodlife. If the spiritual disciplines of philosophy are to thrive,philosophers have to take off the bandages of epistemology andmetaphysics altogether, accept the finite and fallible status of theirknowledge claims, and get on with confessing their belief in the thingsthat make life worth living (Levinson, 204).

Leaving Harvard and America enabled Santayana to develop hisnaturalism.

4. Naturalism

Scepticism and Animal Faith (1923) introduces Santayana'smature naturalism. In summary, he maintains that knowledge and beliefare not the result of reasoning. They are inescapable beliefs essentialfor action. Epistemological foundationalism is a futile approach toknowledge. A more promising approach is to discern the underlyingbelief structures assumed in animal action and imposed by naturalcircumstances. The foundations for this approach are rooted inAristotle's concept of activity and the pragmatic approach to actionand knowledge. Explanations of natural events are the proper purview ofscientists, while explications of the meaning and value of action maybe the proper sphere of historians and philosophers. Even so, bothscientific explanations and philosophical explications are based in thenatural world. Meaning and value are generated by the interaction ofour physical makeup, which Santayana calls “psyche,” andour material environment.

Santayana's critique of epistemological foundationalism is as uniqueas his heritage. With Spanish irony, he structures his argument afterDescartes' Meditations but arrives at an anti-foundationalistconclusion. Drawing attention to what is given in an instant ofawareness (the smallest conceivable moment of consciousness), hemaintains that any knowledge or recognition found in such an instantwould have to be characterized by a concept (or “essence”to use Santayana's term). Concepts cannot be limited to particularinstances; rather the particular object is seen as an instance of theconcept (essence). Thus, pursuing doubt to its ultimate end, one isconfined by the “solipsism of the present moment.” That is,in a single instant of awareness there can be no knowledge or belief,since both require concepts not bounded by a moment of awareness.Hence, the ultimate end of doubt, an instance of awareness, is empty.It is the vacant awareness of a given without a basis for belief,knowledge or action. Santayana concludes that if one attempts to findthe bedrock of certainty, one may rest his claim only after he has, atleast theoretically, recognized that knowledge is composed of instancesof awareness that in themselves do not contain the prerequisites forknowledge, e.g., concepts, universals, or essences. That bothskepticism and proofs against skepticism lead nowhere is preciselySantayana's point.

Philosophy must begin in medias res (in the middle ofthings), in action itself, where there is an instinctive and arationalbelief in the natural world: “animal faith.” For Santayana,animal faith is the arational basis for any knowledge claims. It is thenether world of biological order operating through our physical,non-conscious being generating beliefs that are “radically incapable ofproof” (Scepticism, 35).

In rising out of passive intuition, I pass, by a vital constitutionalnecessity, to belief in discourse, in experience, in substance, intruth and in spirit. All these objects may conceivably be illusory.Belief in them however, is not grounded on a prior probability, butall judgements of probability are grounded on them. They express arational instinct or instinctive reason, the waxing faith of an animalliving in a world which he can observe and sometimes remodel.(Scepticism, 308–309)

He describes these prejudices as “animal” in an effort to emphasizeour biological base and community. This emphasis is similar toWittgenstein's reference to convictions that are beyond being justifiedor unjustified as “something animal” (On Certainty 359). Oursis a long-standing primitive credulity, and our most basic beliefs arethose of an animal creed: “that there is a world, that there is afuture, that things sought can be found, and things seen can be eaten”(Scepticism 180).

Santayana (like Hume, Wittgenstein, and Strawson) holds there arecertain inevitable beliefs; they are inescapable given nature and ourindividual physical history. And like Wittgenstein, he maintains thatthese beliefs are various and variable. They are determined by theinterplay between environment and psyche, i.e., between our naturalconditions and the inherited, physical “organisation of the animal”(the psyche). That we now inescapably believe in external objects andthe general reliability of inductive reasoning, for example, is aresult of physical history and the natural conditions of our world andourselves. Since these beliefs are relative to our physical histories,if our history and biological order had been different, our naturalbeliefs would also be different.

The environment determines the occasions on which intuitions arise,the psyche — the inherited organisation of the animal — determinestheir form, and ancient conditions of life on Earth no doubt determinedwhich psyches should arise and prosper; and probably many forms ofintuition, unthinkable to man, express the facts and the rhythms ofnature to other animal minds (Scepticism, 88).

By displacing privileged mentalistic accounts with his pragmaticnaturalism, Santayana challenges then prevailing structures in bothAmerican and English philosophies.

Santayana explicates the primary distinguishable characteristics ofour knowledge in his four-book Realms of Being. Believing thatphilosophical terminology should have historical roots, Santayanaemployed classical terminology for these characteristics: matter,essence, spirit, and truth. And although these terms are central tomany philosophical traditions, he views his work as “a revision of thecategories of common sense, faithful in spirit to orthodox humantradition, and endeavouring only to clarify those categories anddisentangle the confusions that inevitably arise …”(Realms 826).

Within Santayana's naturalism, the origins of all events in theworld are arbitrary, temporal, and contingent. Matter (by whatever nameit is called) is the principle of existence. It is “often untoward, andan occasion of imperfection or conflict in things.” (Realm ofMatter, v) Hence, a “sour moralist” may consider it evil, but,according to Santayana, if one takes a wider view “matter would seem agood … because it is the principle of existence: it is allthings in their potentiality and therefore the condition of all theirexcellence or possible perfection.” (Realm of Matter, v)Matter is the non-discursive, natural foundation for all that is. Initself, it is neither good nor evil but may be perceived as such whenviewed from the vested interest of animal life. Latent animal interestsconvert matter's non-discernible, neutral face to a smile or frown. But“moral values cannot preside over nature.” (Realm of Matter,134) Principled values are the products of natural forces: “Thegermination, definition, and prevalence of any good must be grounded innature herself, not in human eloquence.” (Realm of Matter,131) From the point of view of origins, therefore, the realm of matteris the matrix and the source of everything: it is nature, the sphere ofgenesis, the universal mother.

“Essence” is Santayana's term for concepts and meanings.He draws on Aristotle's notion of essence but removes all capacitiesfor producing effects. An essence is a universal, an object of thought,not a material force. However, consciousness of an essence is generatedby the interaction of a psyche and the material environment. Hence,matter remains as the origin of existence and the arena of action, andthe realm of essence encompasses all possible thought.

“Truth,” if some disinterested observer could ascertainit, would constitute all the essences that genuinely characterize thenatural world and all activities within it. Since all living beingshave natural interests and preferences, no such knowledge of truth canexist. All conscious beings must ascertain belief about truth based onthe success of actions that sustain life and permit periods of delightand joy.

Santayana uses the term “spirit” to mean consciousness orawareness. As early as 19 April 1909, Santayana wrote to his sisterthat he was writing a brand new system of philosophy to be called“The realms of Being” — “not the mineralvegetable and animal, but something far more metaphysical, namelyEssence, Matter, and Consciousness. It will not be a long book, butvery technical.” When the book was published in the 1930s, hehad added his notion of truth and substituted “spirit” for“consciousness.” From his perspective, the substitutiondid not alter the meaning of consciousness but rather captured anentire tradition of philosophical and religious inquiry as well asborrowed associated ideas from eastern religions. But to theconsternation of traditional views, many found the identity of spiritwith consciousness a troublesome idea. And so they should, for withthis identity Santayana removes the spiritual from the field of agencyas well as from being an alternative way of living. Santayana'sapproach is therefore in direct contrast with those who think ofspirit as causing action or as fostering a particular lifestyle.Following the tracks of Aristotle, he makes the spiritual life oneform of culminating experiences arising from fulfilling activity.

Awareness evolved through the natural development of the physicalworld, and he demurs to scientific accounts for explanations of thatdevelopment. Almost poetically, he sees spirit as emerging in momentsof harmony between the psyche and the environment. Such harmony istemporary, and the disorganized natural forces permit spirit to arise“only spasmodically, to suffer and to fail. For just as thebirth of spirit is joyous, because some nascent harmony evokes it, sothe rending or smothering of that harmony, if not sudden, imposesuseless struggles and suffering” (Birth of Reason,53). Accepting the world's insecure equilibrium enables one tocelebrate the birth of spirit. Reasoning, particularly reasoningassociated with action, is a signal of the nascent activities of thepsyche working to harmonize its actions with the environment, and ifsuccessful, reason permits individual and social organization toprosper while spirit leads to the delight of imagination andartistry.

Some commentators characterize Santayana as an epiphenomenalist, andthere are some commonalities, specifically the view that spirit is notefficacious. But there also are considerable differences. Santayanadoes not characterize his view as one-way interactionism, primarilybecause he does not think of spirit as an object to be acted upon.Spirit is rather a distinguishable aspect of thought, generated inactivity, and may be viewed more as a relational property. Santayanasometimes speaks of spirit and essence as supervening on materialevents. But lacking the distinctions of contemporary philosophy, it isdifficult to characterize Santayana's philosophy of mind accurately.His view of consciousness is more celebrational, as opposed to being aburden or eliciting action. Spirit is “precisely the voice of order innature, the music, as full of light as of motion, of joy as of peace,that comes with an even partial and momentary perfection in some vitalrhythm” (Birth of Reason, 53).

Santayana's account of spirit and essence may lead one to wonderhow Santayana can be included as a pragmatist, and this classificationis accurate only if one includes an extended notion of pragmaticnaturalism. For Santayana, explanations of human life, including reasonand spirit, lie within the sciences. The nature of truth simply iscorrespondence with what is, but since humans, nor any other consciousbeing, are able to see beyond the determinant limits of their natureand environment, pragmatism becomes the test of truth rather thancorrespondence. In short, the nature of truth is correspondence whilethe test of truth is pragmatic. If an explanation continues to bearfruit over the long run, then it is accepted as truth until it isreplaced by a better explanation. In this, Santayana's account ofpragmatic truth is more closely aligned with Peirce's conception thanthat of James or Dewey, including a tripartite account of knowledgeconsisting of the subject, symbol, and object. Pragmatism is properlyfocused on scientific inquiry and explanations, and it is severelylimited, even useless, in spiritual and aesthetic matters. Pragmatismis rooted in animal life, the need to know the world in a way thatfosters successful action. If all life were constituted only bysuccessful or unsuccessful activities, one's fated circumstances wouldgovern. But consciousness makes liberation possible and brings delightand festivity in material circumstances.

Santayana's anti-foundationalism, non-reductive materialism, andpragmatic naturalism coupled with his emphasis on the spiritual lifeand his view of philosophy as literature anticipated many developmentsin philosophy and literary criticism that occurred in the latter halfof the twentieth century, and these served as a challenge to the morehumanistic naturalisms of John Dewey and other American naturalists.These views also provide the foundation for his view of ethics,political philosophy, and the spiritual life.

5. Ethics, Politics, and the Spiritual Life

Santayana's moral philosophy is based on his naturalism. Mostcommentators classify Santayana as an extreme moral relativist whomaintains that all individual moral perspectives have equal standingand are based on the heritable traits and environmental circumstancesof individuals. This naturalistic approach applies to all livingorganisms. Nature does not establish a moral hierarchy of goods betweenanimal populations nor between individual animals. However, this samemoral relativism is also the basis for Santayana's claim that the goodof individual animals is clear and is subject to naturalistic orbiological investigation.

Two tenets of his ethics are (1) the forms of the good are diverse,and (2) the good of each animal is definite and final. The moralterrain of animals, viewed from a neutral perspective, places allanimal interests and goods as equal. Each good stems from heritablephysical traits and is shaped by adaptations to the environment.Concluding that the “forms of the good are divergent,”Santayana holds that the good for each animal may differ, depending onthe nature of the psyche and the circumstances, and may be differentfor an individual animal in different times and environments. There isno one good for all, or even for an individual.

Seen as a whole, animal goods are not logically or morally ordered,they are natural, morally neutral forces. But no living being canobserve all interests with such neutrality. Situated in a particularplace and time with heritable traits, all living beings have interestsoriginating from their physiology and physical environment. ForSantayana, one may reasonably note that a neutral observer could viewall moral perspectives as equal, but such a view must be balanced bythe understanding that no animal stands on neutral ground. There is apolarity between the ideal neutral, objective understanding of behavioron the one hand and the committed and vested interest of particularliving beings on the other hand. One may recognize that every animalgood has its own standing, and one may respect that ideal, but “theright of alien natures to pursue their proper aims can never abolishour right to pursue ours” (Persons and Places, 179).

Santayana's second moral insight is that for each animal the good isdefinite and final. There are specific goods for each animal dependingon the specific heritable traits and interests of the psyche and on thespecific circumstances of the environment. Self-knowledge, then, is thedistinguishing moral mark. The extent to which one knows one'sinterests, their complexity and centrality, will determine whether onecan achieve a good life, provided the environment is accommodating.Santayana's philosophy rests on his naturalism and on his humane andsympathetic appreciation for the excellence of each life. But from theperspective of autobiography, Santayana's clear notion ofself-knowledge, in the sense of the Greeks, is his most distinguishingmark. For Santayana, “integrity or self-definition is and remains firstand fundamental in morals …” (Persons and Places170).

Self-knowledge requires a critical appreciation of one's culture andphysical inheritance, and the ability to shape one's life in streams ofconflicting goods within oneself and within one's community. Althoughthis position is common to many considerations of political philosophy,Santayana's approach to politics was much more conservative than thatnormally associated with the founders of American pragmatism, such asJames and Dewey.

Santayana's political conservatism is founded on his naturalism andhis emphasis on self-realization and spirituality. He is concernedthat liberal democracy may not provide a consistent basis forindividual freedom and spirituality. The twin fears of private anarchyand public uniformity are the grounds for his criticisms of democracy,and his account of social justice focuses on the individual ratherthan the society. Santayana's inattentiveness to social inequality isperhaps understandable in the context of his naturalism where thefinal cause is the “authority of things.” His basiccontention that individual suffering is the worse feature of humanlife, not social inequality, causes him to focus more on the naturaldilemmas of the individual rather than on social action. Coupling thisargument with the view that all institutions, including governments,are inextricably rooted in their culture and background perhaps makesit understandable that he would not readily see how particular viewsof social inequality could be transferred readily from one culture toanother. In addition, Santayana's European and particularly Spanishbackground influenced his attitudes toward social action. His repeated“Latin” perspective caused him to look with considerablesuspicion toward forcing Anglo-Saxon outlooks on other cultures. Yet,in individual matters he was remarkably forthcoming as when heprovided financial support to numerous friends, often of quitedifferent philosophical, literary, and political persuasions than hisown.

Within the natural order every living entity stands on the samenatural ground bathing equally in the impartial light of nature. No onecan claim a central place above others. But each entity also has anembodied set of values, and the art of life is to structure one'senvironment in such a fashion as to best realize those embodied values,i.e., to place in harmony the natural forces of one's life and one'senvironment.

American democracy has an exacting challenge. Lacking the time tolive in the mind, Americans use quantity as a justification for lack ofquality in their achievements. Quantity is potentially infinite andassures unrivaled busy-ness, but is it worth it? No, according toSantayana, if self-realization is the goal of individual life. Ofcourse, circumstances make it difficult, perhaps impossible, for someindividuals to order their lives reasonably and attain the practicalwisdom to achieve individual happiness. America's economic successwould appear to make this possible for many, but to succeed Americansmust abandon servility to mechanism and economics. What is needed is alife made free by a recovery of the capacity to have a vision of thegood life (Persons and Places, xxxiv). According to Santayana,the fanatic is a person who has lost sight of their goals and redoubledtheir efforts. To supplant this busy, blind, relentlessly quantitativeexistence, we must regain sight of our goals. Individual life should bestructured in light of those goals.

Santayana's focus is on the individual, and the role of the state isto protect and to enable the individual to flourish. The goal is notsomething far off to be worked toward. It is not a task to beaccomplished and then supplanted by another task, as is often the casewith American enterprise does. Rather it is the celebration of life in itsfestivities. It is Aristotle's practical wisdom: structuring individuallife as it is, living it joyfully, and assuring that one's commitmentsare conducive to the delights of the intellect and consistent with thedemands of the time and tradition. It is the exercise of one's freechoice, shaping one's life through material well-being, but doing so toappreciate the poetic, dramatic quality of our own existence. To rushthrough life and die without the joy of living, that is the tragedy ofAmerican life.

For some, though perhaps not for many, the spiritual life will be anorganizing good. The cultural background for the spiritual life is thereligious life, primarily as found within the Catholic Church andinformed by the late nineteenth century and early twentieth centuryaccounts of Eastern religions. But Santayana is not interested in anhistorical or doctrinal explication of the elements of traditionalreligion, rather the philosophical task is to discern the elementsgiving rise to such traditional views, and, in his own case, toexplicate the aspects of these origins without the dogmatism oftraditional religious belief.

Introducing the concept of a spiritual life led some to see aninherent conflict between Santayana's life of reason and the spirituallife. In a letter to Milton Karl Munitz (23 July 1939), Santayanaexplains the different perspectives of the life of reason and thespiritual life:

I admit gladly that religion (= the “Spiritual life”) is anatural interest, to be collated within the life of reason with everyother interest; but it is an interest in the ultimate, an adjustmentto life, death, science, and politics; and though cultivated speciallyby certain minds at certain hours, it has no moral or natural claim topredominance. The races and ages in which it is absent will inevitablyregard it as unnecessary and obstructive, because they tend to arrangetheir moral economy without religion at all. Those to whom religion isabsorbing (e.g., the Indians) will on the contrary think a moraleconomy inferior in which no place and no influence is given to themonition of ultimate facts. I think you would not find my two voicesinharmonious (I agree that they are different in pitch) if you did notlive in America in the XXth century when the “dominance of theforeground” is so pronounced. The dominance of the distance orbackground would impose a different synthesis. (Works, v. 5,book 6, 254)

If the spiritual life was considered a dominating or guiding influencein structuring one's life, the way Santayana views reason, then onewould be forced to choose between the life of reason and the life ofthe spirit as a monk or a nun must choose between the life of theworld and that of the religious order. But for Santayana, no suchconflict exists; spirituality is not choosing a way of living over anextended period of time. Indeed, any effort to choose such a lifewould be short lived, since the spiritual life is a life ofreceptivity to all that comes in the moment while suspending animalinterests. Suspending one's specific natural interests, such aseating or sleeping, for any extended period would be both detrimentaland tragic.

Consciousness essentially is only awareness, an attention to what isgiven, rather than being an instrument in reshaping the world.Consciousness, emerging late in the evolutionary pathway, is aflowering of happy circumstances that celebrates what is given, andwhen truly recognized, does only that. It is joyful, delighting inwhat is presented, and not troubled by where it leads or what itmeans. This is not to restate Santayana's view poetically but ratherto convey that Santayana characterizes consciousness, itself, aspoetic rather than as a means to an action or as a way of implementingan action. The more dower, moralistic, and evangelical aspects ofreligion he saw as confused efforts to make religion a science, asocial club, or a political movement. Spirit, or consciousness, ismomentary, fleeting, and depends on the physical forces of our bodiesand environment in order to exist. Shaping one's life to enhance thesespiritual, fleeting moments, extending them as long as is practical,is one of the delights of living for some people, but it is certainlynot a goal for all, nor should it be.

Bibliography

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Complete Works

The Works of George Santayana, Martin A. Coleman(Director and Editor), Daivd Spiech (Textual Editor), MarianneS. Wokeck (Senior Editor), Herman J. Saatkamp, Jr. (Founding andConsulting Editor), Cambridge, MA and London: The MIT Press.The volumes are as follows:

• Volume I (1986), Persons and Places: Fragments of Autobiography, edited by William G. Holzberger and Herman J. Saatkamp, Jr., Introduction by Richard C. Lyon.
• Volume II (1988), The Sense of Beauty: Being the Outlines of Aesthetic Theory, edited by William G. Holzberger and Herman J. Saatkamp, Jr., Introduction by Arthur Danto.
• Volume III (1989), Interpretations of Poetry and Religion, edited by William G. Holzberger and Herman J. Saatkamp, Jr., Introduction by Joel Porte.
• Volume IV (1994), The Last Puritan: A Memoir in the Form of a Novel, edited by William G. Holzberger and Herman J. Saatkamp, Jr. Introduction by Irving Singer.
• Volume V (2001–2008), The Letters of George Santayana,edited by William G. Holzberger and Herman J. Saatkamp, Jr.
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  • Book Two: 1910-1920, published 2002.
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  • Book Four: 1928–1932, published 2003.
  • Book Five: 1933–1936, published 2003.
  • Book Six: 1937–1940, published 2004.
  • Book Seven: 1941–1947, published 2006.
  • Book Eight: 1948–1952, published 2008.
• Volume VI (2011), George Santayana's Marginalia: A Critical Selection , edited by John McCormick and Kris Walters Frost. Introduction by John McCormick.
  • Book One: Abell–Lucretius
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Selected Translations

• Filosofia del viaggio, GiuseppePatella, translator, Roma: UniversItalia, 2013.
• Le sentiment de la beauté, Anne Combarnous andFabienne Gaspari, translators, Pau: Université de Pau,2002.
• Interpretaciones de poesía y religión,Carmen García Trevijano and Susana Nuccetelli, translators,with Introduction by Manuel Garrido, Madrid: Catedra, 1993(Oviedo: KRK, 2008).
• Il senso della Bellezza, Guiseppe Patella, translator,Palermo: Aesthetica Edizioni, 1997.
• El Sentido de la belleza, Carmen García Trevijano,translator, Madrid: Editorial Tecnos, 1999.
• Personas y lugares: fragmentos de autobiografia, PedroGarcía Martín, translator, Madrid: Editorial Trotta,2002.
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Academic Tools

Other Internet Resources

• Web pages of the Santayana Edition (Indiana University/Purdue University)
• Overheard in Seville, Bulletin of the Santayana Society, Indianapolis: Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis.
• The Santayana Edition Annotated Bibliography.

Related Entries

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