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Terrorism in Russia has a long history starting from the time of the Russian Empire. Terrorism, in the modern sense,^[3] means violence against civilians to achieve political or ideological objectives by creating extreme fear.^[4] Terrorism was an important tool used by Marxist revolutionaries in the early 20th century to disrupt the social, political, and economic system and enable rebels to bring down the Tzarist government. Terrorist tactics, such as hostage-taking, were widely used by the Soviet secret agencies, most notably during the Red Terror and Great Terror campaigns, against the population of their own country, according to Karl Kautsky and other historians of Bolshevism.

Starting from the end of the 20th century, significant terrorist activity has taken place in Moscow, most notably apartment bombings and the Moscow theater hostage crisis. Many more acts of terrorism have been committed in Chechnya, Dagestan, and other parts of the country.

• 3Soviet Union
• 4Contemporary Russia
  • 4.4More recent attacks

19th century[edit]

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German Social Democrat Karl Kautsky traces the origins of terrorism, including the one in Russian Empire, to the 'Reign of Terror' of the French Revolution.^[5][6] Others emphasize the role of Russian revolutionary movements during the 19th century, especially Narodnaya Volya ('People's Will') and the Nihilist movement, which included several thousand followers. 'People's Will' organized one of the first political terrorism campaigns in history. In March 1881, it assassinated the Emperor of Russia Alexander II, who twenty years earlier had emancipated the Russian serfs.^[7]

Important ideologists of these groups were Mikhail Bakunin and Sergey Nechayev, who was described in Fyodor Dostoevsky's novel The Possessed.^[7] Nechayev argued that the purpose of revolutionary terror is not to gain the support of the masses, but on the contrary, to inflict misery and fear on the common population. According to Nechayev, a revolutionary must terrorize civilians in order to incite rebellions. He wrote:^[7]

'A revolutionary must infiltrate all social formations including the police. He must exploit rich and influential people, subordinating them to himself. He must aggravate the miseries of the common people, so as to exhaust their patience and incite them to rebel. And, finally, he must ally himself with the savage word of the violent criminal, the only true revolutionary in Russia'.

'The Revolutionist is a doomed man. He has no private interests, no affairs, sentiments, ties, property nor even a name of his own. His entire being is devoured by one purpose, one thought, one passion - the revolution. Heart and soul, not merely by word but by deed, he has severed every link with the social order and with the entire civilized world; with the laws, good manners, conventions, and morality of that world. He is its merciless enemy and continues to inhabit it with only one purpose - to destroy it.'

According to historian and writer Edvard Radzinsky, Nechayev's ideas and tactics were widely used by Joseph Stalin and other Russian revolutionaries.^[7]

Early (tsarist) 20th century[edit]

Terrorism, economic, political and agrarian, was central to the strategy of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party. The SR Combat Organization, founded in 1902 as an autonomous branch of the Socialist Revolutionary Party responsible for assassinating government officials, was led by Grigory Gershuni and operated separately from the party so as not to jeopardize its political actions. SRCO agents assassinated two Ministers of the Interior, Dmitry Sipyagin and V. K. von Plehve, Grand Duke Sergei Aleksandrovich, the Governor of Ufa N. M. Bogdanovich, and many other high-ranking officials.^[8] It has been estimated that all together in the last twenty years of the Tsarist regime (1897-1917) more than 17,000 people were killed or wounded in terror attacks.^[9]

Soviet Union[edit]

Red terror[edit]

The policy of Red terror in Soviet Russia served to frighten the civilian population and exterminate certain social groups considered as 'ruling classes' or enemies of the people. Karl Kautsky said about Red Terror: 'Among the phenomena for which Bolshevism has been responsible, Terrorism, which begins with the abolition of every form of freedom of the Press, and ends in a system of wholesale execution, is certainly the most striking and the most repellent of all.. Kautsky recognized that Red Terror represented a variety of terrorism because it was indiscriminate, intended to frighten the civilian population, and included taking and executing hostages '[1]. Martin Latsis, chief of the Ukrainian Cheka, emphasized that Red terror was an extrajudicial punishment not for specific acts, but membership in condemned social classes:

'Do not look in the file of incriminating evidence to see whether or not the accused rose up against the Soviets with arms or words. Ask him instead to which class he belongs, what is his background, his education, his profession. These are the questions that will determine the fate of the accused. That is the meaning and essence of the Red Terror.'^[10]

One of the most common terrorist practices was hostage-taking. A typical report from a Cheka department stated: 'Yaroslavl Province, 23 June 1919. The uprising of deserters in the Petropavlovskaya volost has been put down. The families of the deserters have been taken as hostages. When we started to shoot one person from each family, the Greens began to come out of the woods and surrender. Thirty-four deserters were shot as an example'.^[11]

Contemporary Russia[edit]

Accusations of sponsoring terrorism[edit]

Contemporary Russian government has been frequently accused of sponsoring or inspiring terrorist activities inside the country and in other countries in order to achieve its political goals.

Former FSB officer Alexander Litvinenko, Johns Hopkins University and Hoover Institute scholar David Satter,^[12] Russian lawmaker Sergei Yushenkov, historian Yuri Felshtinsky, politologist Vladimir Pribylovsky and former KGB general Oleg Kalugin asserted that Russian apartment bombings were in fact a 'false flag' attack perpetrated by the FSB (successor to the KGB) in order to legitimize the resumption of military activities in Chechnya and bring Vladimir Putin and the FSB to power. FSB operatives were actually briefly arrested in the case, but their presence at the crime scene was explained as 'training'.^[13][14] Researchers such as Gordon Bennett, Robert Bruce Ware, Vlad Sobell, Peter Reddaway and Richard Sakwa have criticized this as a conspiracy theory, pointing out that the theories' proponents have provided little evidence to support them, and also that the theory ignores the history of Chechen terrorism and threats made by the militants before the bombings.^{[15][16][17][18][19]}

Former FSB officer Aleksander Litvinenko and investigator Mikhail Trepashkin alleged that a Chechen FSB agent directed the Moscow theater hostage crisis in 2002.^[20][21] International and Russian journalists accused the FSB of staging many terrorism acts, such as a market-place bombing in the city of Astrakhan in 2001, bus-stop bombings in the city of Voronezh, and the blowing up the Moscow-Grozny train,^[22][23] whereas innocent people were convicted or killed. Journalist Boris Stomakhin claimed that a bombing in Moscow metro in 2004^[24] was probably organized by FSB agents rather than by the unknown man who called the Kavkaz Center and claimed his responsibility.^[25] Stomakhin was arrested and imprisoned to five years of prison for inciting hatred and defamatory statements aimed at groups and persons of particular religious and ethnic background and for promoting violent change of constitutional regime and violation of territorial integrity of Russian Federation (articles 280 and 282 of the Russian Criminal Code).^[26]

Many journalists and workers of international NGOs were reported to be kidnapped by FSB-affiliated forces in Chechnya who pretended to be Chechen terrorists: Andrei Babitsky from Radio Free Europe, Arjan Erkel and Kenneth Glack from Doctors Without Borders, and others.^[27]

Alexander J. Motyl, professor of political science at Rutgers University argues that Russia's direct and indirect involvement in the violence in eastern Ukraine qualifies as a state-sponsored terrorism, and that those involved qualify as 'terrorist groups.'^[28]

In May 2016, Reuters published a Special Report titled 'How Russia allowed homegrown radicals to go and fight in Syria' that, based on first-hand evidence, said that at least in the period between 2012 and 2014 the Russian government agencies ran a programme to facilitate and encourage Russian radicals and militants to leave Russia and go to Turkey and then on to Syria; the persons in question had joined jihadist groups, some fighting with the ISIL.^[29]

In 2018, after the poisoning of Skripals, the State Department was reportedly prepared to officially designate Russia as 'state sponsor of terrorism' by US law based on the cases described above, but the work has been stopped as it was decided that it would interefere with US options in areas where it has to cooperate with Russia.^[30]

Meeting of Sergey Lavrov in October 2018 during peace talks with the representative of Taliban in Moscow caused controversies in Russia as the leadership frequently highlighted that it 'does not negotiate with terrorist' while the official media reporting about the talks had to annotate each mention of 'Taliban' with a legally required note that the organization is considered terrorist and forbidden on the territory of Russian federation.^[31][32]

In April 2019 Security Service of Ukraine arrested 7 Russians traveling on counterfeit passports accused of preparing a car bombing against an Ukrainian military intelligence officer. One of them, traveling with fake Kyrgyzstan passport, was identified as Timur Dzortov, previously deputy chief of staff to the leader Ingushetia. Another man, responsible for actually planting the bomb in the car, accidentally triggered it and was wounded by the blast. SBU accused officer Dmitry Minayev from Russian Federal Security Service (FSB) of coordinating the group.^[33]

Threats of terrorism in the 2010s[edit]

Islamic terrorism is a recent threat to the security of Russia,^[34] with most terrorist activity taking place in Chechnya and Dagestan. Since October 2007, the Caucasus Emirate has withdrawn its nationalist goals of creating a sovereign state in Chechnya. It has since fully adopted the Islamic fundamentalist ideology of Sunnijihadism.^[35] They have made repeated statements in their speeches that they have declared war on 'anyone who wages war against Muslims'.

Many^[quantify] Arab and human-rights activists have criticized the Russian government's counter-terrorism operations, saying they unfairly target Muslims.^[36]

1999 Russian apartment bombings[edit]

The Russian apartment bombings were a series of bombings in Russia that killed nearly 300 people and, together with the Dagestan War, led the country into the Second Chechen War. The five bombings took place in Moscow and two other Russian towns during ten days of September 1999. None of the Chechen field commanders accepted the responsibility for the bombing. Chechen president Aslan Maskhadov denied involvement of his government.

The bombings had stopped after a controversial episode when a similar bomb was found and defused in an apartment block in the Russian city of Ryazan on 23 September and suspects who planted the bomb were found to be FSB operatives, which was then explained as an 'exercise'. Later in the evening, Vladimir Putin praised the vigilance of the Ryzanians and ordered the air bombing of Grozny, which marked the beginning of the Second Chechen War.^[37]

An official investigation of the bombings was completed only three years later, in 2002. It was conducted by the Russian FSB agency. Seven suspects were killed, six have been convicted on terrorism-related charges, and one remains a fugitive. According to the investigation, all bombings were organized and led by Achemez Gochiyaev - who as of 2007 remained at large.

The Russian Duma rejected two motions for parliamentary investigation of the Ryazan incident. An independent public commission to investigate the bombings chaired by Duma deputy Sergei Kovalev was rendered ineffective because of government refusal to respond to its inquiries. Two key members of the Kovalev Commission, Sergei Yushenkov and Yuri Shchekochikhin, both Duma members, have since died in assassinations in April 2003 and July 2003 respectively. The Commission's lawyer Mikhail Trepashkin was arrested in October 2003 to become one of the better-known political prisoners in Russia.

More recent attacks[edit]

2004

In September 2004, following bombing attacks on two aircraft and the downtown Moscow Metro, Chechen terrorists seized over 1,000 hostages at a school in Beslan, North Ossetia.

2006

The 2006 Moscow market bombing occurred on August 21, 2006, when a self-made bomb of the power of more than 1 kg of TNT exploded at Moscow's Cherkizovsky Market frequented by foreign merchants.^[38] The bombing killed 13 people and injured 47. In 2008, eight members of the neo-Nazi organization The Saviour were sentenced for their roles in the attack.^[39]

2010[edit]

In March 2010 suicide bombings were carried out by two women who were aligned with Caucasus Emirate and Al-Qaeda. The terrorist attack happened during the morning rush hour of March 29, 2010, at two stations of the Moscow Metro (Lubyanka and Park Kultury), with roughly 40 minutes interval between. At least 40 people were killed, and over 100 injured.

2011[edit]

The Domodedovo International Airport bombing was a suicide bombing in the international arrival hall of Moscow's Domodedovo International, in Domodedovsky District, Moscow Oblast, on 24 January 2011.

The bombing killed 37 people^[40] and injured 173 others, including 86 who had to be hospitalised.^[41] Of the casualties, 31 died at the scene, three later in hospitals, one en route to a hospital,^[42] one on 2 February after having been put in a coma, and another on 24 February after being hospitalised in grave condition.^[40]

Russia's Federal Investigative Committee later identified the suicide bomber as a 20-year-old from the North Caucasus, and said that the attack was aimed 'first and foremost' at foreign citizens.^[43]

2013[edit]

In December 2013, two separate suicide bombings a day apart targeted mass transportation in the city of Volgograd, in the Volgograd Oblast of Southern Russia, killing 34 people overall, including both perpetrators who were aligned to Caucasus Emirate and Vilayat Dagestan. The attacks followed a bus bombing carried out in the same city two months earlier.

On 21 October 2013, a suicide bombing took place on a bus in the city of Volgograd, in the Volgograd Oblast of Southern Russia. The attack was carried out by a female perpetrator named Naida Sirazhudinovna Asiyalova (Russian: Наида Сиражудиновна Асиялова) who was converted to Islam by her husband, she detonated an explosive belt containing 500–600 grams of TNT inside a bus carrying approximately 50 people, killing seven civilians and injuring at least 36 others.

The Investigative Committee of Russia recorded 661 terrorist offences for 2013, including 31 terrorist attacks, which claimed about 40 lives and dozens more injuries.^[44]

2014[edit]

On October 5, 2014 a 19-year-old man named Opti Mudarov went to the town hall where an event was taking place to mark Grozny City Day celebrations in Grozny coinciding with the birthday of Chechen PresidentRamzan Kadyrov. Police officers noticed him acting strangely and stopped him. The officers began to search him and the bomb which Mudarov had been carrying exploded. Five officers, along with the suicide bomber, were killed, while 12 others were wounded.

On 4 December 2014, a group of Islamist militants, in three vehicles, killed three traffic policemen, after the latter had attempted to stop them at a checkpoint in the outskirts of Grozny.^[45] The militants then occupied a press building and an abandoned school, located in the center of the city. Launching a counter-terrorism operation, security forces, with the use of armored vehicles, attempted to storm the buildings and a firefight ensued.^[46]

14 policemen, 11 militants and 1 civilian were killed. Additionally 36 policemen were wounded in the incident. The Press House was also burned and severely damaged in the incident.^[47][48]

2015[edit]

Metrojet Flight 9268 was an international chartered passenger flight operated by Russian airline Kogalymavia (branded as Metrojet). On 31 October 2015 at 06:13 local time EST (04:13 UTC), an Airbus A321-231 operating the flight disintegrated above the northern Sinai following its departure from Sharm El Sheikh International Airport, Egypt, en route to Pulkovo Airport, Saint Petersburg, Russia. All 217 passengers and seven crew members who were on board were killed.

Shortly after the crash, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL)'s Sinai Branch, previously known as Ansar Bait al-Maqdis, claimed responsibility for the incident, which occurred in the vicinity of the Sinai insurgency.^[49][50] ISIL claimed responsibility on Twitter, on video, and in a statement by Abu Osama al-Masri, the leader of the group's Sinai branch.^[51][52] ISIL posted pictures of what it said was the bomb in Dabiq, its online magazine.

By 4 November 2015, British and American authorities suspected that a bomb was responsible for the crash. On 8 November 2015, an anonymous member of the Egyptian investigation team said the investigators were '90 percent sure' that the jet was brought down by a bomb. Lead investigator Ayman al-Muqaddam said that other possible causes of the crash included a fuelexplosion, metal fatigue, and lithium batteries overheating.^[53] The Russian Federal Security Service announced on 17 November that they were sure that it was a terrorist attack, caused by an improvised bomb containing the equivalent of up to 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of TNT that detonated during the flight. The Russians said they had found explosive residue as evidence. On 24 February 2016, Egyptian PresidentAbdel Fattah el-Sisi acknowledged that terrorism caused the crash.^[54]

2017[edit]

On 3 April 2017, a terrorist attack using an explosive device took place on the Saint Petersburg Metro between Sennaya Ploshchad and Tekhnologichesky Institut stations.^[55] Seven people (including the perpetrator) were initially reported to have died, and eight more died later from their injuries, bringing the total to 15.^{[56][57][58][59][60]} At least 45 others were injured in the incident.^[61][62][63] The explosive device was contained in a briefcase.^[61] A second explosive device was found and defused at Ploshchad Vosstaniya metro station.^[59] The suspected perpetrator was named as Akbarzhon Jalilov, a Russian citizen who was an ethnic Uzbek born in Kyrgyzstan.^[64] Prior to the attack, Chechen separatists had been responsible for several terrorist attacks in Russia. In 2016, ISIS had plotted to target St. Petersburg due to Russia's military involvement in Syria, resulting in arrests.^[65] No public transport system in Russia had been bombed since the 2010 Moscow Metro bombings.^[66]ISIS propaganda was being circulated prior to this incident. It encouraged supporters to launch strikes on Moscow. ISIS propaganda showed bullet holes through Putin's head and a poster circulated before the attack of a falling Kremlin and included the message 'We Will Burn Russia.'^[67]

In 22 April 2017, two people were shot and killed in an attack in a Federal Security Service office in the Russian city of Khabarovsk. The gunman was also killed. The Russian Federal Security Service said that the native 18-year-old perpetrator was a known member of a neo-nazi group.;^[68]

On 27 December 2017 a bomb exploded in a supermarket in St Petersburg, injuring thirteen people. Vladimir Putin described this as a terrorist attack.^[69]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism. (2016). Global Terrorism Database (globalterrorismdb_0616dist.xlsx). Retrieved from https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd University of Maryland
2. ^National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism. (2016). Global Terrorism Database (gtd1993_0616dist.xlsx). Retrieved from https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd University of Maryland
3. ^See the 'Etymology' section
4. ^Humphreys, Adrian (17 January 2006). 'One official's 'refugee' is another's 'terrorist''. National Post. p. 1. Archived from the original on 27 February 2011. Retrieved 11 October 2007. The divergent assessments of the same evidence on such an important issue shocks a leading terrorism researcher. 'The notion of terrorism is fairly straightforward — it is ideologically or politically motivated violence directed against civilian targets.' said Professor Martin Rudner, director of the Canadian Centre of Intelligence and Security Studies at Ottawa's Carleton University.Cite uses deprecated parameter deadurl= (help)
5. ^Terrorism and Communism by Karl Kautsky. Kautsky said: 'It is, in fact, a widely spread idea that Terrorism belongs to the very essence of revolution, and that whoever wants a revolution must somehow come to some sort of terms with terrorism. As proof of this assertion, over and over again the great French Revolution has been cited.' (Chapter 1)
6. ^The Gulag Archipelago by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
7. ^ ^abcdEdvard RadzinskyStalin: The First In-depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia's Secret Archives (1997) ISBN0-385-47954-9
8. ^Anna Geifman. Entangled in Terror: The Azef Affair and the Russian Revolution, Wilmington, Scholarly Resources Inc., 2000, 247 pp. ISBN0-8420-2651-7ISBN0-8420-2650-9
9. ^Figes, Orlando (1996). A People's Tragedy: The Russian revolution, 1891-1924. New York: Penguin. p. 138. ISBN014024364X.
10. ^Yevgenia Albats and Catherine A. Fitzpatrick. The State Within a State: The KGB and Its Hold on Russia - Past, Present, and Future, 1994. ISBN0-374-52738-5.
11. ^Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartošek, Jean-Louis Panné, Jean-Louis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, Stéphane Courtois, The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression, Harvard University Press, 1999, hardcover, 858 pages, ISBN0-674-07608-7
12. ^David Satter. Darkness at Dawn: The Rise of the Russian Criminal State. Yale University Press. 2003. ISBN0-300-09892-8.
13. ^'Archived copy'(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 2012-01-29.Cite uses deprecated parameter deadurl= (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
14. ^'Oleg Kalugin: 'Putin Is a Temporary Twist In History''. The Ukrainian Week. 8 September 2011. Retrieved 12 January 2016.
15. ^Sakwa, Richard (2008). Putin, Russia's choice (2nd ed.). Routledge. pp. 333–334. ISBN978-0-415-40765-6.
16. ^Vladimir Putin & Russia's Special ServicesArchived 12 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine Gordon Bennet, 2002
17. ^Western treatment of Russia signifies erosion of reason Dr. Vlad Sobell, 2007. The same article at Russia Profile
18. ^Russia Profile Weekly Experts Panel: Russian Presidential Election – Affirming Democracy or Confirming Autocracy?Archived 19 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine
19. ^Bowker, Mike (2005). 'Western Views of the Chechen Conflict'. In Richard Sakwa (ed.). Chechnya: From Past to Future (1st ed.). London: Anthem Press. pp. 223–238. ISBN978-1-84331-164-5.
20. ^Lazaredes, Nick (4 June 2003). 'Terrorism takes front stage — Russia's theatre siege'. SBS. Archived from the original on 21 August 2006. Retrieved 28 November 2006.Cite uses deprecated parameter deadurl= (help)
21. ^М. Трепашкин: 'Создана очень серьезная группа' (in Russian). Chechen Press State News Agency. 1 December 2006. Retrieved 1 December 2006.
22. ^Special services stage undermining activities - by Yulia Latynina, Novaya Gazeta, 3 April 2006.
23. ^The marketplace was blown up by photorobots by Vjacheslav Izmailov, Novaya Gazeta, 7 November 2005.
24. ^The Moscow metro bombing - by Roman Kupchinsky, RFE/RL Reports, 12 March 2004
25. ^Stomakhin, Boris (12 October 2006). 'Pay back for genocide' (in Russian). Retrieved 2 December 2008.
26. ^ARTICLE 19’S Statement on the conviction of Russian newspaper editor Boris Stomakhin, 23 November 200
27. ^Ismailov, Vyacheslav (27 January 2005). 'Special services of delivery'. Novaya Gazeta (in Russian). Retrieved 2 December 2008.
28. ^'Putin's Russia as a State Sponsor of Terrorism'. World Affairs Journal. Retrieved 9 June 2017.
29. ^'How Russia allowed homegrown radicals to go and fight in Syria'. Reuters. Retrieved 9 June 2017.
30. ^'The U.S. Considered Declaring Russia a State Sponsor of Terror, Then Dropped It — ProPublica'. ProPublica. Sebastian Rotella. 21 May 2018. Retrieved 23 May 2018.CS1 maint: others (link)
31. ^'Лавров принял в Москве террористов на конференции по Афганистану'. The Insider (in Russian). 9 November 2018. Retrieved 11 November 2018.
32. ^'Лавров заявил о важности участия талибов* во встрече по Афганистану'. РИА Новости (in Russian). 9 November 2018. Retrieved 11 November 2018.
33. ^'Ukrainian Authorities Say Russian 'Terror' Group Thwarted, Seven Arrested'. RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Retrieved 17 April 2019.
34. ^State Duma Deputy: US Making strategic mistakeArchived 29 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine Pravda
35. ^Darion Rhodes, Salafist-Takfiri Jihadism: the Ideology of the Caucasus Emirate, International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, March 2014
36. ^Bigg, Claire. 'Russia: Rights Groups Say Muslims Are Unfairly Targeted In Fight Against Terrorism'. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 9 August 2016. The Russian government is fabricating cases against Muslims in order to prosecute them for terrorism, leading Russian human rights campaigners charged today.
37. ^Alex Goldfarb, with Marina Litvinenko Death of a Dissident: The Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko and the Return of the KGB, The Free Press, 2007, ISBN1-4165-5165-4
38. ^Market Blast Kills 10 and Injures 55
39. ^Russian court jails market bombersArchived 2008-05-19 at the Wayback Machine Al Jazeera. 15 May 2008.
40. ^ ^abЧисло жертв теракта в Домодедово возросло до 37 (in Russian). RIA Novosti. 24 February 2011. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
41. ^Steve Rosenberg (24 January 2011). 'Moscow bombing: Carnage at Russia's Domodedovo airport'. BBC News. Retrieved 24 January 2011.
42. ^На месте взрыва в Домодедово погиб 31 человек, сообщил Минздрав (in Russian). RIA Novosti. 24 January 2011. Retrieved 24 January 2011.
43. ^'Russia 'identifies' Domodedovo airport bomber suspect'. BBC News. 29 January 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
44. ^'Russia hit by 31 terror attacks in 2013 – chief investigator'. TV-Novosti. 27 February 2014. Retrieved 5 March 2014.
45. ^Walker, Shaun (4 December 2014). 'Gun battles erupt in Chechnya's capital after militants launch attack'. The Guardian. Retrieved 4 December 2014.
46. ^'Putin thanks Kadyrov, Chechen law enforcers for counterterrorism operation in Grozny'. ITAR-TASS. Moscow. 5 December 2014. Archived from the original on 5 December 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
47. ^'В спецоперации в Грозном уничтожено 11 боевиков, заявил Кадыров'. 5 December 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
48. ^'Во время спецоперации в Грозном погибли 14 полицейских'. 5 December 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
49. ^'Updates: Russian airliner crashes in Egypt's Sinai peninsula'. BBC News. Retrieved 31 October 2015.
50. ^'Russian plane that crashed in Egypt 'broke up in air''. France 24 News. Retrieved 2 November 2015.
51. ^'Plane bombing mastermind unmasked as Egyptian cleric'. The Sunday Times. 8 November 2015. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
52. ^'Abu Osama al-Masri: Portrait of the Egyptian terrorist suspected of downing Russian plane'. Regina Leader–Post. ISSN0839-2870. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 9 November 2015.Cite uses deprecated parameter deadurl= (help)
53. ^Hassan, Ahmed Mohamed; Georgy, Michael (9 November 2015). 'Investigators '90 percent sure' bomb downed Russian plane' (U.S. ed.). Reuters. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
54. ^'Egypt's president admits Russian plane downed by 'terrorism''. Gulf Today. 24 February 2016.
55. ^Youngman, Mark (6 April 2017). 'Russia's domestic terrorism threat is serious, sophisticated and complex'. The Conversation. The Conversation Trust (UK). Retrieved 9 April 2017. The April 3 bombing on the St Petersburg metro was the highest-profile terror attack on Russian soil since a suicide bombing at Moscow’s Domodedovo airport in January 2011.
56. ^'Число жертв теракта в Петербурге выросло до 14 человек [Number of fatalities of the terrorist act in Petersburg has grown to fourteen people'. Meduza. Meduza. 4 April 2017. Retrieved 4 April 2017. В результате взрыва в метро Санкт-Петербурга погибли 14 человек, сообщила министр здравоохранения России Вероника Скворцова. [In the aftermath of explosion in the metro of Saint Petersburg 14 people have died, reported by the minister of health of Russia Veronika Skvortsova]
57. ^'Signs of terror attack in St. Petersburg subway blast obvious – Kremlin'. TASS. Saint Petersburg. 4 April 2017. Retrieved 4 April 2017. The Russian Investigative Committee has qualified the blast as a terrorist attack, but other versions are looked into.
58. ^MacFarquhar, Neil; Nechepureneko, Ivan. 'Explosion in St. Petersburg Metro Kills at Least 10'. The New York Times. The New York Times. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
59. ^ ^ab'Взрыв в метро Санкт-Петербурга: погибли 10 человек' [Explosion in Metro St. Petersburg, killing 10 people] (in Russian). BBC Russia. 3 April 2017. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
60. ^'В петербургской больнице скончались двое пострадавших при взрыве в метро' [Two injured in the explosion in the subway died in the St. Petersburg hospital] (in Russian). RIA Novosti. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
61. ^ ^ab'St Petersburg metro explosions kill ten – media'. BBC. 3 April 2017. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
62. ^'At least 10 people may have been killed by Russia metro blast: TASS'. Reuters. 3 April 2017. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
63. ^'Explosion in St. Petersburg Metro, fatalities confirmed (GRAPHIC IMAGES)'. Russia: RT. 3 April 2017. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
64. ^'St Petersburg metro bombing suspect 'from Kyrgyzstan''. BBC News. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
65. ^Bergen, Peter (4 April 2017). 'The likely culprits behind the St. Petersburg bombing'. CNN. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
66. ^Ioffe, Julia (4 April 2017). 'How Russians Got Used to Terrorism'. The Atlantic. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
67. ^Griffin, Andrew (4 April 2017). 'St Petersburg attacks: Isis celebrates explosions that killed 10 people'. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
68. ^'Murderous attack on FSB office in Khabarovsk 'was by a neo-Nazi - not an IS terrorist''. siberiantimes.com. Retrieved 10 March 2018.
69. ^Stonestreet, John (28 December 2017). 'Putin says St Petersburg supermarket bombing was terrorism'. Retrieved 28 December 2017.

External links[edit]

• Terrorism: A Marxist Perspective, By Dave Holmes
• Terrorism in Russia - slideshow by Life magazine

The literary genre of science fiction is diverse, and its exact definition remains a contested question among both scholars and devotees. This lack of consensus is reflected in debates about the genre's history, particularly over determining its exact origins. There are two broad camps of thought, one that identifies the genre's roots in early fantastical works such as the SumerianEpic of Gilgamesh (earliest Sumerian text versions c. 2150–2000 BCE). A second approach argues that science fiction only became possible sometime between the 17th and early 19th centuries, following the scientific revolution and major discoveries in astronomy, physics, and mathematics.

Question of deeper origins aside, science fiction developed and boomed in the 20th century, as the deep integration of science and inventions into daily life encouraged a greater interest in literature that explores the relationship between technology, society, and the individual. Scholar Robert Scholes calls the history of science fiction 'the history of humanity's changing attitudes toward space and time .. the history of our growing understanding of the universe and the position of our species in that universe.'^[1] In recent decades, the genre has diversified and become firmly established as a major influence on global culture and thought.

• 1Early science fiction
• 219th-century transitions
• 3Early 20th century
• 4The Golden Age
• 5The New Wave and its aftermath
• 6Science fiction in the 1980s

Early science fiction[edit]

Ancient and early modern precursors[edit]

There are a number of ancient or early modern texts including a great many epics and poems that contain fantastical or 'science-fictional' elements, yet were written before the emergence of science fiction as a distinct genre. These texts often include elements such as a fantastical voyage to the moon or the use of imagined advanced technology. Although fantastical and science fiction-like elements and imagery exist in stories such as Ovid's Metamorphoses (8 AD), the Old English epic heroic poem Beowulf (8th-11th centuries AD), and the Middle German epic poem Nibelungenlied (c. 1230), their relative lack of references to science or technology puts them closer to fantasy rather than science fiction.

One of the earliest and most commonly-cited texts for those looking for early precursors to science fiction is the ancient Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh, with the earliest text versions identified as being from about 2000 BC. American science fiction author Lester del Rey was one such supporter of using Gilgamesh as an origin point, arguing that 'science fiction is precisely as old as the first recorded fiction. That is the Epic of Gilgamesh.'^[2] French science fiction writer Pierre Versins also argued that Gilgamesh was the first science fiction work due to its treatment of human reason and the quest for immortality.^[3] In addition, Gilgamesh features a flood scene that in some ways resembles work of apocalyptic science fiction. However, the lack of explicit science or technology in the work has led some^[who?] to argue that it is better categorized as fantastic literature.

Ancient Indian poetry such as the Hindu epic Ramayana (5th to 4th century BC) includes Vimana flying machines able to travel into space or under water, and destroy entire cities using advanced weapons. In the first book of the Rigveda collection of Sanskrit hymns (1700–1100 BC), there is a description of 'mechanical birds' that are seen 'jumping into space speedily with a craft using fire and water.. containing twelve stamghas (pillars), one wheel, three machines, 300 pivots, and 60 instruments.'^[4] The ancient Hindu mythological epic, the Mahabharata (8th and 9th centuries BC) includes the story of King Kakudmi, who travels to heaven to meet the creator Brahma and is shocked to learn that many ages have passed when he returns to Earth, anticipating the concept of time travel.^[5]

Ancient Greek playwright Aristophanes has several works that include elements often associated with the 'fantastic voyage', including air travel to another world. Examples include his The Clouds (423 BC), The Birds (414 BC) and The Peace.

One frequently cited text is the Syrian-Greek writer Lucian's 2nd-century satireTrue History, which uses a voyage to outer space and conversations with alien life forms to comment on the use of exaggeration within travel literature and debates. Typical science fiction themes and topoi in True History include travel to outer space, encounter with alien life-forms (including the experience of a first encounter event), interplanetary warfare and planetary imperialism, motif of giganticism, creatures as products of human technology, worlds working by a set of alternative physical laws, and an explicit desire of the protagonist for exploration and adventure.^[6] In witnessing one interplanetary battle between the People of the Moon and the People of the Sun as the fight for the right to colonize the Morning Star, Lucian describes giant space spiders who were 'appointed to spin a web in the air between the Moon and the Morning Star, which was done in an instant, and made a plain campaign upon which the foot forces were planted..' L. Sprague de Camp and a number of other authors argue this to be one of the earliest if not the earliest example of science fiction or proto-science fiction.^{[6][7][8][9][10]} However, since the text was intended to be explicitly satirical and hyperbolic, other critics are ambivalent about its rightful place as a science fiction precursor. For example, English critic Kingsley Amis wrote that 'It is hardly science-fiction, since it deliberately piles extravagance upon extravagance for comic effect' yet he implicitly acknowledged its SF character by comparing its plot to early 20th-century space operas: 'I will merely remark that the sprightliness and sophistication of True History make it read like a joke at the expense of nearly all early-modern science fiction, that written between, say, 1910 and 1940.'^[11] Lucian translator Bryan Reardon is more explicit, describing the work as 'an account of a fantastic journey - to the moon, the underworld, the belly of a whale, and so forth. It is not really science fiction, although it has sometimes been called that; there is no 'science' in it.'^[12]

The early Japanese tale of 'Urashima Tarō' involves traveling forwards in time to a distant future,^[13] and was first described in the Nihongi (720).^[14] It was about a young fisherman named Urashima Taro who visits an undersea palace and stays there for three days. After returning home to his village, he finds himself three hundred years in the future, where he is long forgotten, his house in ruins, and his family long dead.^[13] The 10th-century Japanese narrative The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter may also be considered proto-science fiction. The protagonist of the story, Kaguya-hime, is a princess from the Moon who is sent to Earth for safety during a celestial war, and is found and raised by a bamboo cutter in Japan. She is later taken back to the Moon by her real extraterrestrial family. A manuscript illustration depicts a round flying machine similar to a flying saucer.^[15]

One Thousand and One Nights[edit]

Several stories within the One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights, 8th-10th century CE) also feature science fiction elements. One example is 'The Adventures of Bulukiya', where the protagonist Bulukiya's quest for the herb of immortality leads him to explore the seas, journey to the Garden of Eden and to Jahannam, and travel across the cosmos to different worlds much larger than his own world, anticipating elements of galactic science fiction;^[16] along the way, he encounters societies of jinns,^[17]mermaids, talking serpents, talking trees, and other forms of life.^[16]

In 'Abdullah the Fisherman and Abdullah the Merman', the protagonist gains the ability to breathe underwater and discovers an underwater submarine society that is portrayed as an inverted reflection of society on land, in that the underwater society follows a form of primitive communism where concepts like money and clothing do not exist.

Other Arabian Nights tales deal with lost ancient technologies, advanced ancient civilizations that went astray, and catastrophes which overwhelmed them.^[18] 'The City of Brass' features a group of travellers on an archaeological expedition^[19] across the Sahara to find an ancient lost city and attempt to recover a brass vessel that Solomon once used to trap a jinn,^[20] and, along the way, encounter a mummified queen, petrified inhabitants,^[21] lifelike humanoid robots and automata, seductive marionettes dancing without strings,^[22] and a brass robot horseman who directs the party towards the ancient city.

'The Ebony Horse' features a robot^[23] in the form of a flying mechanical horse controlled using keys that could fly into outer space and towards the Sun,^[24] while the 'Third Qalandar's Tale' also features a robot in the form of an uncanny sailor.^[23] 'The City of Brass' and 'The Ebony Horse' can be considered early examples of proto-science fiction.^[15][25] Other examples of early Arabic proto-science fiction include al-Farabi's Opinions of the residents of a splendid city about a utopian society, Zakariya al-Qazwini's futuristic tale of Awaj bin Anfaq about a man who travelled to Earth from a distant planet, and certain Arabian Nights elements such as the flying carpet.^[26]

Other medieval literature[edit]

According to Roubi,^[27] the final two chapters of the Arabic theological novelFādil ibn Nātiq (c. 1270), also known as Theologus Autodidactus, by the Arabianpolymath writer Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288) can be described as science fiction. The theological novel deals with various science fiction elements such as spontaneous generation, futurology, apocalyptic themes, eschatology, resurrection and the afterlife, but rather than giving supernatural or mythological explanations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using his own extensive scientific knowledge in anatomy, biology, physiology, astronomy, cosmology and geology. For example, it was through this novel that Ibn al-Nafis introduces his scientific theory of metabolism,^[27] and he makes references to his own scientific discovery of the pulmonary circulation in order to explain bodily resurrection.^[28] The novel was later translated into English as Theologus Autodidactus in the early 20th century.

During the European Middle Ages, science fictional themes appeared within many chivalric romance and legends. Robots and automata featured in romances starting in the twelfth century, with Le Pèlerinage de Charlemagne and Eneas among the first.^[29] The Roman de Troie, another twelfth-century work, features the famous Chambre de Beautes, which contained four automata, one of which held a magic mirror, one of which performed somersaults, one of which played musical instruments, and one which showed people what they most needed.^[30] Automata in these works were often ambivalently associated with necromancy, and frequently guarded entrances or provided warning of intruders.^[31] This association with necromancy often leads to the appearance of automata guarding tombs, as they do in Eneas, Floris and Blancheflour, and Le Roman d’Alexandre, while in Lancelot they appear in an underground palace.^[32] Automata did not have to be human, however. A brass horse is among the marvelous gifts given to the Cambyuskan in Geoffrey Chaucer's 'The Squire's Tale'. This metal horse is reminiscent of similar metal horses in middle eastern literature, and could take its rider anywhere in the world at extraordinary speed by turning a peg in its ear and whispering certain words in its ear.^[33] The brass horse is only one of the technological marvels which appears in The Squire’s Tale: the Cambyuskan, or Khan also receives a mirror which reveals distant places, which the witnessing crowd explains as operating by the manipulation of angles and optics, and a sword which deals and heals deadly wounds, which the crowd explains as being possible using advanced smithing techniques.

Technological inventions are also rife in the Alexander romances. In John Gower's Confessio Amantis, for example, Alexander the Great constructs a flying machine by tying two griffins to a platform and dangling meat above them on a pole. This adventure is ended only by the direct intervention of God, who destroys the device and throws Alexander back to the ground. This does not, however, stop the legendary Alexander, who proceeds to have constructed a gigantic orb of glass which he uses to travel beneath the water. There he sees extraordinary marvels which eventually exceed his comprehension.^[34]

States similar to suspended animation also appear in medieval romances, such as the Histora Destructionis Troiae and the Roman d’Eneas. In the former, king Priam has the body of the hero Hector entombed in a network of golden tubes that run through his body. Through these tubes ran the semi-legendary fluid balsam which was then reputed to have the power to preserve life. This fluid kept the corpse of Hector preserved as if he was still alive, maintaining him in a persistent vegetative state during which autonomic processes such as the growth of facial hair continued.^[35]

The boundaries between medieval fiction with scientific elements and medieval science can be fuzzy at best. In works such as Geoffrey Chaucer 'The House of Fame', it is proposed that the titular House of Fame is the natural home of sound, described as a ripping in the air, towards which all sound is eventually attracted, in the same way that the earth was believed to be the natural home of earth to which it was all eventually attracted.^[36] Likewise, medieval travel narratives often contained science-fictional themes and elements. Works such as Mandeville’s Travels included automata, alternate species and sub-species of humans, including Cynoencephali and Giants, and information about the sexual reproduction of diamonds.^[37] However, Mandeville’s Travels and other travel narratives in its genre mix real geographical knowledge with knowledge now known to be fictional, and it is therefore difficult to distinguish which portions should be considered science fictional or would have been seen as such in the Middle Ages.

Proto-science fiction in the Enlightenment and Age of Reason[edit]

In the wake of scientific discoveries that characterized the Enlightenment, several new types of literature began to take shape in 16th-century Europe. The humanist thinker Thomas More's 1516 work of fiction and political philosophy entitled Utopia describes a fictional island whose inhabitants have perfected every aspect of their society. The name of the society stuck, giving rise to the Utopia motif that would become so widespread in later science fiction to describe a world that is seemingly perfect but either ultimately unattainable or perversely flawed. The Faust legend (1587) contains an early prototype for the 'mad scientist story'^[38] (and indeed would later be adapted as explicitly science fiction in the 1956 film Forbidden Planet).^{[citation needed]}

In the 17th and 18th centuries, the so-called 'Age of Reason' and widespread interest in scientific discovery fueled the creation of speculative fiction that anticipated many of the tropes of more recent science fiction. Several works expanded on imaginary voyages to the moon, first in Johannes Kepler's Somnium (The Dream, 1634), which both Carl Sagan and Isaac Asimov have referred to as the first work of science fiction. Similarly, some^[who?] identify Francis Godwin's The Man in the Moone (1638) as the first work of science fiction in English, and Cyrano de Bergerac's Comical History of the States and Empires of the Moon (1656).^[39] Space travel also figures prominently in Voltaire's Micromégas (1752), which is also notable for the suggestion that people of other worlds may be in some ways more advanced than those of earth.

Other proto-science fiction from the Age of Reason of the 17th and 18th centuries includes (in chronological order):

• Shakespeare's The Tempest (1610–11) contains a prototype for the 'mad scientist story'.
• Francis Bacon's New Atlantis (1627), an incomplete utopian novel.
• Margaret Cavendish's The Description of a New World, Called the Blazing-World (1666), a novel that describes an alternate world found in the Arctic by a young noblewoman.
• Simon Tyssot de Patot's Voyages et Aventures de Jacques Massé (1710) features a Lost World.
• Simon Tyssot de Patot's La Vie, Les Aventures et Le Voyage de Groenland du Révérend Père Cordelier Pierre de Mésange (1720) features a Hollow Earth.
• Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels (1726) contains descriptions of alien cultures and 'weird science'.
• Samuel Madden's Memoirs of the Twentieth Century (1733) in which a narrator from 1728 is given a series of state documents from 1997–1998 by his guardian angel, a plot device which is reminiscent of later time travel novels. However, the story does not explain how the angel obtained these documents.
• Ludvig Holberg'sNiels Klim's Underground Travels (1741) is an early example of the Hollow Earth genre.
• Louis-Sébastien Mercier's L'An 2440 (1771) gives a predictive account of life in the 25th century.
• Nicolas-Edmé Restif de la Bretonne's La Découverte Australe par un Homme Volant (1781) features prophetic inventions.
• Giacomo Casanova's Icosameron (1788) is a novel that makes use of the Hollow Earth device

19th-century transitions[edit]

Shelley and Europe in the early 19th century[edit]

The 19th century saw a major acceleration of these trends and features, most clearly seen in the groundbreaking publication of Mary Shelley's Frankenstein in 1818. The short novel features the archetypal 'mad scientist' experimenting with advanced technology.^[40] In his book Billion Year Spree, Brian Aldiss claims Frankenstein represents 'the first seminal work to which the label SF can be logically attached'. It is also the first of the 'mad scientist' subgenre. Although normally associated with the gothic horror genre, the novel introduces science fiction themes such as the use of technology for achievements beyond the scope of science at the time, and the alien as antagonist, furnishing a view of the human condition from an outside perspective. Aldiss argues that science fiction in general derives its conventions from the gothic novel. Mary Shelley's short story 'Roger Dodsworth: The Reanimated Englishman' (1826) sees a man frozen in ice revived in the present day, incorporating the now common science fiction theme of cryonics whilst also exemplifying Shelley's use of science as a conceit to drive her stories. Another futuristic Shelley novel, The Last Man, is also often cited^[who?] as the first true science fiction novel.

In 1836 Alexander Veltman published Predki Kalimerosa: Aleksandr Filippovich Makedonskii (The forebears of Kalimeros: Alexander, son of Philip of Macedon), which has been called the first original Russian science fiction novel and the first novel to use time travel.^[41] In it the narrator rides to ancient Greece on a hippogriff, meets Aristotle, and goes on a voyage with Alexander the Great before returning to the 19th century.

Somehow influenced by the scientific theories of 19th century, but most certainly by the idea of human progress, Victor Hugo wrote in The Legend of the Centuries (1859) a long poem in two parts that can be viewed like a dystopia/utopia fiction, called 20th century. It shows in a first scene the body of a broken huge ship, the greatest product of the prideful and foolish mankind that called it Leviathan, wandering in a desert world where the winds blow and the anger of the wounded Nature is; humanity, finally reunited and pacified, has gone toward the stars in a starship, to look for and to bring liberty into the light.

Other notable proto-science fiction authors and works of the early 19th century include:

• Jean-Baptiste Cousin de Grainville's Le Dernier Homme (1805, The Last Man).
• Historian Félix Bodin's Le Roman de l'Avenir (1834) and Emile Souvestre's Le Monde Tel Qu'il Sera (1846), two novels which try to predict what the next century will be like.
• Jane C. Loudon's The Mummy!: Or a Tale of the Twenty-Second Century (1827), in which Cheops is revived by scientific means into a world in political crisis, where technology has advanced to gas-flame jewelry and houses that migrate on rails, etc.
• Louis Geoffroy's Napoleon et la Conquête du Monde (1836), an alternate history of a world conquered by Napoleon.
• C.I. Defontenay's Star ou Psi de Cassiopée (1854), an Olaf Stapledon-like chronicle of an alien world and civilization.
• Slovak (in that time Hungarian) author Gustáv Reuss's Hviezdoveda alebo životopis Krutohlava, čo na Zemi, okolo Mesiaca a Slnka skúsil a čo o obežniciach, vlasaticiach, pôvode a konci sveta vedel ('The Science of the Stars or The Life of Krutohlav who Visited the Moon and the Sun and Knew about Planets, Comets and the Beginning and the End of the World' ) (1856). In this book Gustáv Reuss sends his hero named Krutohlav, a scholar from the Gemer region, right to the Moon.. in a balloon. When the hero comes back, he builds a sort of a dragon-like interstellar ship, in which the characters travel around the whole known Solar System and eventually visit all the countries of the Earth.
• Astronomer Camille Flammarion's La Pluralité des Mondes Habités (1862) which speculated on extraterrestrial life.
• Edward Bulwer-Lytton's The Coming Race (1871), a novel where the main character discovers a highly evolved subterranean civilization. PSI-powers are given a logical and scientific explanation, achieved through biological evolution and technological progress, rather than something magical or supernatural.

Verne and Wells[edit]

The European brand of science fiction proper began later in the 19th century with the scientific romances of Jules Verne and the science-oriented, socially critical novels of H. G. Wells.^[42] Verne's adventure stories, notably Journey to the Center of the Earth (1864), From the Earth to the Moon (1865), and Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (1869) mixed daring romantic adventure with technology that was either up to the minute or logically extrapolated into the future. They were tremendous commercial successes and established that an author could make a career out of such whimsical material. L. Sprague de Camp calls Verne 'the world's first full-time science fiction novelist.'

Wells's stories, on the other hand, use science fiction devices to make didactic points about his society. In The Time Machine (1895), for example, the technical details of the machine are glossed over quickly so that the Time Traveller can tell a story that criticizes the stratification of English society. The story also uses Darwinian evolution (as would be expected in a former student of Darwin's champion, Huxley), and shows an awareness of Marxism. In The War of the Worlds (1898), the Martians' technology is not explained as it would have been in a Verne story, and the story is resolved by a deus ex machina, albeit a scientifically explained one.

The differences between Verne and Wells highlight a tension that would exist in science fiction throughout its history. The question of whether to present realistic technology or to focus on characters and ideas has been ever-present, as has the question of whether to tell an exciting story or make a didactic point.

Late 19th-century expansion[edit]

Wells and Verne had quite a few rivals in early science fiction. Short stories and novelettes with themes of fantastic imagining appeared in journals throughout the late 19th century and many of these employed scientific ideas as the springboard to the imagination. Erewhon is a novel by Samuel Butler published in 1872 and dealing with the concept that machines could one day become sentient and supplant the human race. Although better known for Sherlock Holmes, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle also wrote early science fiction, particularly using the character of Professor Challenger. Rudyard Kipling's contributions to the genre in the early 1900s made Campbell describe him as 'the first modern science fiction writer'.^[43] Other writers in the field were Bengali science fiction authors such as Sukumar Ray and Begum Roquia Sakhawat Hussain, who wrote the earliest known feminist science fiction work, Sultana's Dream.^[44] Another early feminist science fiction work at the time was Charlotte Perkins Gilman' Herland.Wells and Verne both had an international readership and influenced writers in America, especially. Soon a home-grown American science fiction was thriving. European writers found more readers by selling to the American market and writing in an Americanised style.

American proto-science fiction in the late 19th century[edit]

In the last decades of the 19th century, works of science fiction for adults and children were numerous in America, though it was not yet given the name 'science fiction.'There were science-fiction elements in the stories of Nathaniel Hawthorne and Fitz-James O'Brien. Edgar Allan Poe is often mentioned with Verne and Wells as the founders of science fiction. A number of his short stories, and the novel The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket are science fictional. An 1827 satiric novel by philosopher George TuckerA Voyage to the Moon is sometimes cited as the first American science fiction novel.^[45]

In 1835 Edgar Allan Poe published a short story, 'The Unparalleled Adventure of One Hans Pfaall' in which a flight to the moon in a balloon is described. It has an account of the launch, the construction of the cabin, descriptions of strata and many more science-like aspects.^[46] In addition to Poe's account the story written in 1813 by the Dutch Willem Bilderdijk is remarkable. In his novel Kort verhaal van eene aanmerkelijke luchtreis en nieuwe planeetontdekking (Short account of a remarkable journey into the skies and discovery of a new planet) Bilderdijk tells of a European somewhat stranded in an Arabic country where he boasts he is able to build a balloon that can lift people and let them fly through the air. The gasses used turn out to be far more powerful than expected and after a while he lands on a planet positioned between earth and moon. The writer uses the story to portray an overview of scientific knowledge concerning the moon in all sorts of aspects the traveller to that place would encounter. Quite a few similarities can be found in the story Poe published some twenty years later.

John Leonard Riddell, a Professor of Chemistry in New Orleans, published the short story Orrin Lindsay's plan of aerial navigation, with a narrative of his explorations in the higher regions of the atmosphere, and his wonderful voyage round the moon! in 1847 on a pamphlet. It tells the story of the student Orrin Lindsay who invents an alloy that prevents gravitational attraction, and in a spherical craft leaves earth and travel to the moon. The story contains algebra and scientific footnotes, which makes it an early example of hard science fiction.^[47]

William Henry Rhodes published in 1871 the tale The Case of Summerfield in the Sacramento Union newspaper, and introduced weapon of mass destruction. A mad scientist and villain called Black Bart makes an attempt to blackmail the world with a powder made of potassium, able to destroy the planet by turning its waters into fire.

The newspaper man Edward Page Mitchell would publish his innovative science fiction short stories in The Sun for more than a decade, except for his first story which was published in Scribner's Monthly in 1874. His stories included invisibility, faster than light travels, teleportation, time travel, cryogenics, mind transfer, mutants, cyborgs and mechanical brains.

One of the most successful works of early American science fiction was the second-best selling novel in the U.S. in the 19th century: Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward (1888), its effects extending far beyond the field of literature. Looking Backward extrapolates a future society based on observation of the current society.

In 1894, Will Harben published 'Land of the Changing Sun,' a dystopian fantasy set at the center of the earth. In Harben's tale, the earth's core is populated by a scientifically advanced civilization, living beneath the glow of a mechanical sun.

Mark Twain explored themes of science in his novel A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court. By means of 'transmigration of souls', 'transposition of epochs – and bodies' Twain's Yankee is transported back in time and his knowledge of 19th-century technology with him. Written in 1889, A Connecticut Yankee seems to predict the events of World War I, when Europe's old ideas of chivalry in warfare were shattered by new weapons and tactics.

American author L. Frank Baum's series of 14 books (1900–1920) based in his outlandish Land of Oz setting, contained depictions of strange weapons (Dorothy and the Wizard in Oz, Glinda of Oz), mechanical men (Tik-Tok of Oz) and a bevy of not-yet-realized technological inventions and devices including perhaps the first literary appearance of handheld wireless communicators (Tik-Tok of Oz).

Jack London wrote several science fiction stories, including 'The Red One' (a story involving extraterrestrials), The Iron Heel (set in the future from London's point of view) and 'The Unparalleled Invasion' (a story involving future germ warfare and ethnic cleansing). He also wrote a story about invisibility and a story about an irresistible energy weapon. These stories began to change the features of science fiction.

Edward Everett Hale wrote The Brick Moon, a Verne-inspired novel notable as the first work to describe an artificial satellite. Written in much the same style as his other work, it employs pseudojournalistic realism to tell an adventure story with little basis in reality.

Edgar Rice Burroughs (1875–1950) began writing science fiction for pulp magazines just before World War I, getting his first story Under the Moons of Mars published in 1912. He continued to publish adventure stories, many of them science fiction, throughout the rest of his life. The pulps published adventure stories of all kinds. Science fiction stories had to fit in alongside murder mysteries, horror, fantasy and Edgar Rice Burroughs' own Tarzan.

Early 20th century[edit]

The next great science fiction writers after H. G. Wells were Olaf Stapledon (1886–1950), whose four major works Last and First Men (1930), Odd John (1935), Star Maker (1937), and Sirius (1944), introduced a myriad of ideas that writers have since adopted, and J.-H. Rosny aîné, born in Belgium, the father of 'modern' French science fiction, a writer also comparable to H. G. Wells, who wrote the classic Les Xipehuz (1887) and La Mort de la Terre (1910). However, the Twenties and Thirties would see the genre represented in a new format. Robert Hugh Benson wrote one of the first modern dystopias, Lord of the World (1907).

Rudyard Kipling's contributions to science fiction go beyond their direct impact at the start of the 20th century. The Aerial Board of Control stories and his critique of the British military, The Army of a Dream, were not only very modern in style, but strongly influenced authors like John W. Campbell and Robert Anson Heinlein, the latter of whom wrote a novel, Starship Troopers, that contains all of the elements of The Army of a Dream, and whose Stranger in a Strange Land was a reimagining of The Jungle Book, with the human child raised by Martians instead of wolves. Heinlein's technique of indirect exposition first appears in Kiplings' writing. Heinlein, the central influence of all science fiction from the 1930s forward, has also described himself as influenced by George Bernard Shaw, whose longest work Back to Methuselah (1921) was itself science fiction.

Birth of the pulps[edit]

The development of American science fiction as a self-conscious genre dates in part from 1926, when Hugo Gernsback founded Amazing Stories magazine, which was devoted exclusively to science fiction stories.^[48] Though science fiction magazines had been published in Sweden and Germany before, Amazing Stories was the first English language magazine to solely publish science fiction. Since he is notable for having chosen the variant term scientifiction to describe this incipient genre, the stage in the genre's development, his name and the term 'scientifiction' are often thought to be inextricably linked. Though Gernsback encouraged stories featuring scientific realism to educate his readers about scientific principles, such stories shared the pages with exciting stories with little basis in reality. Much of what Gernsback published was referred to as 'gadget fiction',^[49][50] about what happens when someone makes a technological invention. Published in this and other pulp magazines with great and growing success, such scientifiction stories were not viewed as serious literature but as sensationalism. Nevertheless, a magazine devoted entirely to science fiction was a great boost to the public awareness of the scientific speculation story. Amazing Stories competed with several other pulp magazines, including Weird Tales (which primarily published fantasy stories), Astounding Stories, and Wonder Stories, throughout the 1930s. It was in the Gernsback era that science fiction fandom arose through the medium of the 'Letters to the Editor' columns of Amazing and its competitors. In August 1928, Amazing Stories published Skylark of Space and Armageddon 2419 A.D., while Weird Tales published Edmond Hamilton's Crashing Suns, all of which represented the birth of space opera.

Fritz Lang's movie Metropolis (1927), in which the first cinematic humanoidrobot was seen, and the Italian Futurists' love of machines are indicative of both the hopes and fears of the world between the world wars. ^[51]Metropolis was an extremely successful film and its art-deco inspired aesthetic became the guiding aesthetic of the science fiction pulps for some time.

Modernist writing[edit]

Writers attempted to respond to the new world in the post-World War I era. In the 1920s and 30s writers entirely unconnected with science fiction were exploring new ways of telling a story and new ways of treating time, space and experience in the narrative form. The posthumously published works of Franz Kafka (who died in 1924) and the works of modernist writers such as James Joyce, T. S. Eliot, Virginia Woolf and others featured stories in which time and individual identity could be expanded, contracted, looped and otherwise distorted. While this work was unconnected to science fiction as a genre, it did deal with the impact of modernity (technology, science, and change) upon people's lives, and decades later, during the New Wave movement, some modernist literary techniques entered science fiction.

Czech playwright Karel Čapek's plays The Makropulos Affair, R.U.R., The Life of the Insects, and the novel War with the Newts were modernist literature which invented important science fiction motifs. R.U.R. in particular is noted for introducing the word robot to the world's vocabulary.

A strong theme in modernist writing was alienation, the making strange of familiar surroundings so that settings and behaviour usually regarded as 'normal' are seen as though they were the seemingly bizarre practices of an alien culture. The audience of modernist plays or the readership of modern novels is often led to question everything.

At the same time, a tradition of more literary science fiction novels, treating with a dissonance between perceived Utopian conditions and the full expression of human desires, began to develop: the dystopian novel. For some time, the science fictional elements of these works were ignored by mainstream literary critics, though they owe a much greater debt to the science fiction genre than the modernists do. Sincerely Utopian writing, including much of Wells, has also deeply influenced science fiction, beginning with Hugo Gernsback's Ralph 124C 41+.Yevgeny Zamyatin's 1920 novel We depicts a totalitarian attempt to create a utopia that results in a dystopic state where free will is lost. Aldous Huxley bridged the gap between the literary establishment and the world of science fiction with Brave New World (1932), an ironic portrait of a stable and ostensibly happy society built by human mastery of genetic manipulation.

In the late 1930s, John W. Campbell became editor of Astounding Science Fiction, and a critical mass of new writers emerged in New York City in a group of science fiction fans (many of whom soon became professional writers) called the Futurians, which included Isaac Asimov, Damon Knight, Donald A. Wollheim, Frederik Pohl, James Blish, Judith Merril, and others.^[52] Other important writers during this period included Robert A. Heinlein, Arthur C. Clarke, and A. E. van Vogt. Campbell's tenure at Astounding is considered to be the beginning of the Golden Age of science fiction, characterized by hard science fiction stories celebrating scientific achievement and progress.^[48] This lasted until postwar technological advances, new magazines like Galaxy under H.L. Gold and later Pohl as editor, and a new generation of writers began writing stories outside the Campbell mode.

George Orwell wrote perhaps the most highly regarded of these literary dystopias, Nineteen Eighty-Four, in 1948. He envisions a technologically governed totalitarian regime that dominates society through total information control. Zamyatin's We is recognized as an influence on both Huxley and Orwell; Orwell published a book review of We shortly after it was first published in English, several years before writing 1984.

Ray Bradbury'sFahrenheit 451, Ursula K. Le Guin'sThe Dispossessed:An Ambiguous Utopia, much of Kurt Vonnegut's writing, and many other works of later science fiction continue this dialogue between utopia and dystopia.

Science fiction's impact on the public[edit]

Orson Welles's The Mercury Theatre on the Air produced a radio version of The War of the Worlds which, famously, panicked large numbers of people who believed the program to be a real newscast.^[53] 'Revisionist' claims cast doubt as to how much anecdotes of mass panic had any reflection in reality. Inarguably, though, the idea of visitors or invaders from outer space became embedded in the consciousness of everyday people.

During World War II, American military planners studied science fiction for ideas. The British did the same, and also asked authors to submit outlandish ideas which the government leaked to the Axis as real plans.^[54] Pilots speculated as to the origins of the 'Foo fighters' they saw around them in the air. Meanwhile, the Germans had developed flying bombs known as V1s and V2s reminiscent of the 'rocket ships' ever-present in pulp science fiction, presaging space flight. Jet planes and the atom bomb were developed. 'Deadline', a Cleve Cartmill short story about a fictional atomic bomb project prompted the FBI to visit the offices of Astounding Science Fiction.

Asimov said that 'The dropping of the atom bomb in 1945 made science fiction respectable. Once the horror at Hiroshima took place, anyone could see that science fiction writers were not merely dreamers and crackpots after all, and that many of the motifs of that class of literature were now permanently part of the newspaper headlines'.^[55] Shivam vijay tv serial download. With the story of a flying saucer crash in Roswell, New Mexico in 1947, science fiction had become modern folklore.

The Golden Age[edit]

The period of the 1940s and 1950s is often referred to as the Golden Age of Science Fiction.

Astounding Magazine[edit]

With the emergence in 1937 of a demanding editor, John W. Campbell, Jr., at Astounding Science Fiction, and with the publication of stories and novels by such writers as Isaac Asimov, Arthur C. Clarke, and Robert A. Heinlein, science fiction began to gain status as serious fiction.

Campbell exercised an extraordinary influence over the work of his stable of writers, thus shaping the direction of science fiction. Asimov wrote, 'We were extensions of himself; we were his literary clones.' Under Campbell's direction, the years from 1938–1950 would become known as the 'Golden Age of science fiction',^[48] though Asimov points out that the term Golden Age has been used more loosely to refer to other periods in science fiction's history.

Campbell's guidance to his writers included his famous dictum, 'Write me a creature that thinks as well as a man, or better than a man, but not like a man.' He emphasized a higher quality of writing than editors before him, giving special attention to developing the group of young writers who attached themselves to him.

Ventures into the genre by writers who were not devoted exclusively to science fiction also added respectability. Magazine covers of bug-eyed monsters and scantily clad women, however, preserved the image of a sensational genre appealing only to adolescents. There was a public desire for sensation, a desire of people to be taken out of their dull lives to the worlds of space travel and adventure.

An interesting footnote to Campbell's regime is his contribution to the rise of L. Ron Hubbard's religion Scientology. Hubbard was considered a promising science fiction writer and a protégé of Campbell, who published Hubbard's first articles about Dianetics and his new religion. As Campbell's reign as editor of Astounding progressed, Campbell gave more attention to ideas like Hubbard's, writing editorials in support of Dianetics. Though Astounding continued to have a loyal fanbase, readers started turning to other magazines to find science fiction stories.

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The Golden Age in other media[edit]

With the new source material provided by the Golden Age writers, advances in special effects, and a public desire for material that treated with the advances in technology of the time, all the elements were in place to create significant works of science fiction film.

As a result, science fiction film came into its own in the 1950s, producing films like Destination Moon, Them!, Invasion of the Body Snatchers, Forbidden Planet, and many others. Many of these movies were based on stories by Campbell's writers. The Thing from Another World was adapted from a Campbell story, Them and Invasion of the Body Snatchers were based on Jack Finney novels, Destination Moon on a Heinlein novel, and The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms was derived from a Ray Bradbury short story. John Wyndham'scosy catastrophes, including The Day of the Triffids and The Kraken Wakes, provided important source material as well.

At the same time, science fiction began to appear on a new medium – television. In 1953 The Quatermass Experiment was shown on British television, the first significant science fiction show, though it could also be described as horror.^{[citation needed]} In the United States, science fiction heroes like Captain Video, Flash Gordon and Buck Rogers were shown, programs that more closely resembled pre-Campbellian science fiction.

End of the Golden Age[edit]

Seeking greater freedom of expression, writers started to publish their articles in other magazines, including The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, If magazine, a resurrected Amazing Stories, and most notably, Galaxy.

Under editors H.L. Gold and then Frederik Pohl, Galaxy stressed a more literary form of science fiction that took cues from more mainstream literature. It was less insistent on scientific plausibility than Campbell's Astounding. The rise of Galaxy signaled the end of Golden Age science fiction, though most of the Golden Age writers were able to adapt to the changes in the genre and keep writing. Some, however, moved to other fields. Isaac Asimov and several others began to write scientific fact almost exclusively.

The New Wave and its aftermath[edit]

Mainstream publishers[edit]

Until about 1950 magazines were the only way authors could publish new stories. Only small specialty presses like Arkham House and Gnome Press published science fiction hardcover books, all reprints of magazine stories. With rare exceptions like the collections Adventures in Time and Space and A Treasury of Science Fiction, large mainstream publishers only printed Verne and Wells. Most genre books were sold by mail from small magazine advertisements, because bookstores rarely carried science fiction.^[56]

By 1951 the small presses proved that demand existed for science fiction books, enough to cause magazines to print regular review columns. Large, mainstream companies published hardboiledcrime fiction during World War II; Doubleday in 1950, then Simon & Schuster, Scribner's, Putnam, and others now entered the science fiction market. They issued fixups such as The Martian Chronicles, novel versions of serialized stories, and original fiction. Demand for content grew as the specialty presses had depleted the supply of easily reprinted, high-quality stories; new genre magazines appeared (38 different science fiction publications existed in the US and UK in 1953); and large-circulation magazines like Playboy, Collier's, and Esquire published stories. Genre stories like Walter M. Miller, Jr.'s A Canticle for Leibowitz became mainstream bestsellers as books. For the first time an author could write science fiction full time; Barry N. Malzberg calculated that producing 1,000 words a day would earn twice the national median income,^[56][57] and Asimov stopped teaching at Boston University School of Medicine after making more money as a writer.^[58]

The mainstream book companies' large print runs and distribution networks lowered prices and increased availability, but displaced the small publishers; Algis Budrys later said that 'they themselves would draw little but disaster' from the science fiction boom of the 1950s they helped to begin.^[56] While book sales continued to grow, the magazine industry almost collapsed from the glut of new titles, shrinking from 23 in mid-1957 to six by the end of 1960, while authors like Heinlein, Clarke, Vonnegut, and Bradbury published through non-genre publications that paid at much higher rates. Top writers like Budrys, Miller, Theodore Sturgeon, and Robert Silverberg left the industry.^[57]

Precursors to the New Wave[edit]

Samuel Beckett's The Unnamable and Waiting for Godot were influential upon writing in the 1950s. In the former all sense of place and time are dispensed with; all that remains is a voice poised between the urge to continue existing and the urge to find silence and oblivion. (The only other major writer to use 'The Unnamable' as a title was H. P. Lovecraft.) In the latter, time and the paradoxes of cause and effect become thematic. Beckett's influence on the intelligentsia—as well as the general influence of existentialism and the legal battles to publish books then classified as obscene—made science fiction more sophisticated, especially in Britain.

William S. Burroughs (1914–1997) was the writer who finally brought science fiction together with the trends of postmodern literature. With the help of Jack Kerouac, Burroughs published Naked Lunch, the first of a series of novels employing a semi-dadaistic technique called the Cut-up and postmodern deconstructions of conventional society, pulling away the mask of normality to reveal nothingness beneath. Burroughs showed visions of society as a conspiracy of aliens, monsters, police states, drug dealers and alternate levels of reality. The linguistics of science fiction merged with the experiments of postmodernism in a beat generation gestalt.

The New Wave[edit]

In 1960, British novelist Kingsley Amis published New Maps of Hell, a literary history and examination of the field of science fiction. This serious attention from a mainstream, acceptable writer did a great deal of good, eventually, for the reputation of science fiction.

Another milestone was the publication, in 1965, of Frank Herbert's Dune, a complex work of fiction featuring political intrigue in a future galaxy, mystical religious beliefs, and the ecosystem of the desert planet Arrakis. Another was the emergence of the work of Roger Zelazny, whose novels such as Lord of Light and his famous The Chronicles of Amber showed that the lines between science-fiction, fantasy, religion, and social commentary could be very fine.

Also in 1965 French director Jean-Luc Godard's film Alphaville used the medium of dystopian and apocalyptic science fiction to explore language and society.

In Britain, the 1960s generation of writers, dubbed 'The New Wave', were experimenting with different forms of science fiction,^[39] stretching the genre towards surrealism, psychological drama and mainstream currents. The 60s New Wave was centred around the writing in the magazine New Worlds after Michael Moorcock assumed editorial control in 1963. William Burroughs was a big influence. The writers of the New Wave also believed themselves to be building on the legacy of the French New Wave artistic movement. Though the New Wave was largely a British movement, there were parallel developments taking place in American science fiction at the same time. The relation of the British New Wave to American science fiction was made clear by Harlan Ellison's original anthology Dangerous Visions, which presented science fiction writers, both American and British, writing stories that pushed the boundaries of what was acceptable in a science fiction magazine. Isaac Asimov, writing an introduction to the anthology, labeled it the Second Revolution, after the first revolution that produced the Golden Age.

The New Wave and their contemporaries placed a greater emphasis on style and a more highbrow form of storytelling. They also sought controversy in subjects older science fiction writers had avoided. For the first time sexuality, which Kingsley Amis had complained was nearly ignored in science fiction, was given serious consideration by writers like Samuel R. Delany, Ursula K. Le Guin, Norman Spinrad, and Theodore Sturgeon. Contemporary political issues were also given voice, as John Brunner and J.G. Ballard wrote cautionary tales about, respectively, overpopulation and apocalypse.

Asimov noted that the Second Revolution was far less clear cut than the first, attributing this to the development of the anthology, which made older stories more prominent. But a number of Golden Age writers changed their style as the New Wave hit. Robert A. Heinlein switched from his Campbellian Future History stories to stylistically adventuresome, sexually open works of fiction, notably Stranger in a Strange Land and The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress. Isaac Asimov wrote the New Wave-ish The Gods Themselves. Many others also continued successfully as styles changed.

Science fiction films took inspiration from the changes in the genre. Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey and A Clockwork Orange gave visual form to the genre's new style. A myriad of other films, including THX 1138 and Soylent Green, depicted a dystopian future.

Ursula K. Le Guin extrapolated social and biological changes that were anthropological in nature.^[59]Philip K. Dick explored the metaphysics of the mind in a series of novels and stories that rarely seemed dependent on their science fictional content. Le Guin, Dick, and others like them became associated with the concept of soft science fiction more than with the New Wave.

Soft science fiction was contrasted to the notion of hard science fiction. Though scientific plausibility had been a central tenet of the genre since Gernsback, writers like Larry Niven and Poul Anderson gave hard science fiction new life, crafting stories with a more sophisticated writing style and more deeply characterized protagonists, while preserving a high level of scientific sophistication.^[60]

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Science fiction in the 1980s[edit]

Cyberpunk[edit]

By the early 1980s the fantasy market was much larger than that of almost all science fiction authors.^[61] The New Wave had faded out as an important presence in the science fiction landscape. As new personal computing technologies became an integral part of society, science fiction writers felt the urge to make statements about its influence on the cultural and political landscape. Drawing on the work of the New Wave, the Cyberpunk movement developed in the early 80s. Though it placed the same influence on style that the New Wave did, it developed its own unique style, typically focusing on the 'punks' of their imagined future underworld. Cyberpunk authors like William Gibson turned away from the traditional optimism and support for progress of traditional science fiction.^[62]William Gibson's Neuromancer, published in 1984, announced the cyberpunk movement to the larger literary world and was a tremendous commercial success. Other key writers in the movement included Bruce Sterling, John Shirley, and later Neal Stephenson. Though Cyberpunk would later be cross-pollinated with other styles of science fiction, there seemed to be some notion of ideological purity in the beginning. John Shirley compared the Cyberpunk movement to a tribe.^[63]

During the 1980s, a large number of cyberpunk manga and anime works were produced in Japan, the most notable being the 1982 manga Akira and its 1988 anime film adaptation, the 1985 anime Megazone 23, and the 1989 manga Ghost in the Shell which was also adapted into an anime film in 1995.

Contemporary science fiction and its future[edit]

Contemporary science fiction has been marked by the spread of cyberpunk to other parts of the marketplace of ideas. No longer is cyberpunk a ghettoized tribe within science fiction, but an integral part of the field whose interactions with other parts have been the primary theme of science fiction around the start of the 21st century.

Notably, cyberpunk has influenced film, in works such as Johnny Mnemonic and The Matrix series, in anime such as Akira and Ghost in the Shell, and the emerging medium of video games, with the critically acclaimed Deus Ex and Metal Gear series. This entrance of cyberpunk into mainstream culture has led to the introduction of cyberpunk's stylistic motifs to the masses, particularly the cyberpunk fashion style. It has also led to other developments including Steampunk (a subgenre of science fiction and fantasy that incorporates technology and aesthetic designs inspired by 19th-century industrial steam-powered machinery) and Dieselpunk (which combines the aesthetics of the diesel-based technology of the interwar period through to the 1950s with retro-futuristic technology and postmodern sensibilities).

Emerging themes in the 1990s included environmental issues, the implications of the global Internet and the expanding information universe, questions about biotechnology and nanotechnology, as well as a post-Cold War interest in post-scarcity societies; Neal Stephenson's The Diamond Age comprehensively explores these themes. Lois McMaster Bujold's Vorkosigan novels brought the character-driven story back into prominence.^[64]

The cyberpunk reliance on near-future science fiction has deepened. In William Gibson's 2003 novel, Pattern Recognition, the story is a cyberpunk story told in the present, the ultimate limit of the near-future extrapolation.

Cyberpunk's ideas have spread in other directions, though. Space opera writers have written work featuring cyberpunk motifs, including David Brin's Kiln People and Ken MacLeod'sFall Revolution series. This merging of the two disparate threads of science fiction in the 1980s has produced an extrapolational literature in contrast to those technological stories told in the present.

John Clute writes that science fiction around the start of the 21st century can be understood in two ways: 'a vision of the triumph of science fiction as a genre and as a series of outstanding texts which figured to our gaze the significant futures that, during those years, came to pass .. [or].. indecipherable from the world during those years .. fatally indistinguishable from the world it attempted to adumbrate, to signify.'

See also[edit]

• Speculative fiction (section History, section Emergent distinction from Science Fiction and pre-existing genre schema)
• Science fiction film (section History)
• Science fiction magazine (section History of science fiction magazines)
• List of science fiction visual artists (redirect from Science fiction art)
• Science fiction fandom (section Origins and history)
• Russian science fiction and fantasy which is arranged by chronological sections
• Science fiction in China which is arranged by chronological sections
• Serbian science fiction (section History)

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Further reading[edit]

• Aldiss, Brian, and David Hargrove. Trillion Year Spree. Atheneum, 1986.
• Amis, Kingsley. New Maps of Hell. Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1960.
• Asimov, Isaac. Asimov on Science Fiction.Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1981.
• Cadigan, Pat. The Ultimate Cyberpunk iBooks, 2002.
• de Camp, L. Sprague and Catherine Crook de Camp. Science Fiction Handbook, Revised. Owlswick Press, 1975.
• Ellison, Harlan. Dangerous Visions. Signet Books, 1967.
• Landon, Brooks. Science Fiction after 1900. Twayne Publishers, 1997.
• Medieval Science Fiction. Ed. Carl Kears and James Paz. KCLMS, 2016.
• The Cambridge Companion to Science Fiction. Ed. Edward James and Farah Mendlesohn. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
• A Companion to Science Fiction. Ed. David Seed. Blackwell, 2005.
• The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. Ed. John Clute and Peter Nicholls. Second ed. Orbit, 1993.
• The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction: Themes, Works, and Wonders. Ed. Gary Westfahl. Greenwood Press, 2005.